The equine spine is a complex structure composed of numerous vertebrae that provide support, facilitate movement, and protect the spinal cord. It is divided into several regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal, each contributing to the overall biomechanics and flexibility of the horse. The spine plays a significant role in the horse's locomotion, posture, and ability to perform various tasks. Research on the equine spine encompasses studies on its anatomy, function, and the impact of various conditions such as injuries, deformities, and age-related changes. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structural and functional aspects of the equine spine, as well as its role in equine health and performance.
Shakeshaft A, Tabor G.Dynamic mobilisation exercises (DME) are often used as part of a physiotherapy rehabilitation programme. Whilst immediate kinematic effects have been measured, the change in posture is anecdotally reported to have a longer duration. This study aimed to test the reliability of a simple objective measurement method, suitable for use in clinical practice, and to objectively measure equine thoracolumbar posture, before and after DME. A single investigator took triplicate measurements of the sagittal thoracolumbar shape using a flexicurve ruler (FCR) then triplicate measurements of the thoracolumba...
Veraa S, Scheffer CJW, Smeets DHM, de Bruin RB, Hoogendoorn AC, Vernooij JCM, Nielen M, Back W.Intervertebral disc disease, as well as the associated alteration of the radiographic intervertebral disc space width, has been reported in horses. Disc height index (DHI) has proven to be an accurate and objective parameter in other species but data related to this parameter are lacking in horses. Therefore, the aims of this retrospective longitudinal diagnostic accuracy study were (a) to evaluate the reliability of measurements within and between observers of the equine Disc Width Index (EDWI) as a parameter for radiographic equine cervical intervertebral disc space width, and (b) to evaluat...
Pigé C, Masseau I, Bonilla AG.The objective of this study was to determine if abdominal elevation could induce radiographically visible widening of the interspinous spaces in the thoracolumbar region of standing sedated horses and facilitate the surgical approach to the region. Radiographs centered on T13 and T18 were taken while applying different degrees of tension on a wide strap placed under the abdomen of 7 healthy horses. Then, the interspinous spaces between T11 and L2 were measured following a standardized method. The interspinous spaces widen radiographically between T11 to L2, except for T18-L1. Thus, the reporte...
Isbell DA, Schils SJ, Oakley SC, Carraro U, Knaeble BR.Asymmetry of the multifidi has been correlated with scoliosis and back pain in humans and has been investigated as a factor in equine back pain as well. The purpose of this study was to determine if FES would affect the symmetry of equine thoracolumbar multifidi when compared to controls. Twelve horses received 24 FES treatments bilaterally over the thoracolumbar region for 8 weeks. Twelve additional control horses received no FES treatments. Ultrasonographic measurements of the cross-sectional area (CSA) of the multifidi of the treatment horses at seven thoracolumbar levels were compared to ...
Corraretti G, Vandeweerd JM, Hontoir F, Vanderperren K, Palmers K. The aim of this study was to describe the anatomy of the nerves supplying the cervical articular process joint and to identify relevant anatomical landmarks that could aid in the ultrasound-guided location and injection of these nerves for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Methods: Twelve cadaveric equine necks were used. Five necks were dissected to study the anatomy of the medial branch of the dorsal ramus of the cervical spinal nerves 3 to 7. Relevant anatomical findings detected during dissections were combined with ultrasonographic images obtained in one other neck. Six additiona...
Aljuboori Z, Sieg E.Gunshot wound (GSW) injuries to the spinal column are correlated with potentially severe neurological damage. Here, we describe a GSW to the thoracolumbar junction (e.g., T12/L1 level) which resulted in a cauda equina syndrome that resolved once the bullet was removed. Methods: A 29-year-old male presented with a T12-L1 GSW; the bullet traversed the right chest and liver, entered the spinal canal at T12, and then settled at L1. He experienced excruciating burning pain in the right lower extremity/perineum and had urinary retention. On neurological examination, he exhibited severe weakness of t...
Gough SL, Anderson JDC, Dixon JJ.Three-dimensional computed tomographic (CT) evaluation of the cervical vertebral column enables more accurate identification of osseous and soft tissue lesions than traditional latero-lateral radiography. However, examination of the complete cervical vertebral column has been limited by horse size, preventing evaluation of the caudal cervical vertebrae. Objective: To describe a technique to enable CT myelography of the complete cervical spine and describe the findings in 51 horses. Methods: Records of 51 horses presented for evaluation of cervical vertebral lesions. Methods: A retrospective re...
Long K, McGowan CM, Hyytiäinen HK.Direct muscular attachment from lumbar vertebrae to the caudal vertebrae of the tail suggests that caudal traction, also described as a tail pull, may affect lumbar vertebral segments and/or associated soft tissues in horses. Traction is a commonly used human manual therapy technique used for pain relief and anecdotally observed to relieve pain in horses. However, research is lacking validating the efficacy of manual caudal traction on the horse. The objective of this study was to determine if caudal traction has an effect on mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) in a group of horses with c...
Hennemann S, de Abreu MR.Degenerative lumbar spinal stenosis is the most frequent cause of low back pain and/or sciatica in the elderly patient. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations and testing are reviewed in a wide current bibliographic investigation. The importance of the relationship between clinical presentation and imaging study, especially magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is emphasized. Prior to treatment indication, it is necessary to identify the precise location of pain, as well as the differential diagnosis between neurological and vascular lameness. Conservative treatment combining medic...
Hurcombe SD, Morris TB, VanderBroek AR, Habecker P, Wulster K, Hopster K.Horses underwent either cervical epidural space (CES) catheterization or subarachnoid space (SAS) catheterization while restrained in stocks, under deep sedation (detomidine and morphine) and local anesthesia (mepivacaine 2%) block. Catheters were placed under ultrasound guidance with visualization of the dura, SAS, and spinal cord between the first (C1) and second (C2) cervical vertebrae. Following sedation and sterile skin preparation, operator 1 placed under ultrasound guidance, a 6- or 8-inch Tuohy needle with the bevel oriented caudally. For CES, a 6-inch Touhy needle was used with the ha...
Ellis KL, King MR.Postural stability maintains balance, protects the spinal column, and allows accurate responses to destabilizing forces. The musculus multifidus (m. multifidus) is the major postural muscle located adjacent to the vertebrae along the length of the spinal column. Increased cross-sectional area (CSA) of the m. multifidus has been demonstrated in horses after a rehabilitation strengthening exercise program; however, correlation with functional postural stability has not been shown. The objective of the present study is to evaluate the relationship of the thoracolumbar m. multifidus CSA and measur...
Byström A, Clayton HM, Hernlund E, Roepstorff L, Rhodin M, Bragança FS, Engell MT, van Weeren R, Weishaupt MA, Egenvall A.Left-right movement symmetry is a highly desirable characteristic in sport horses. Objective: This study compared movement symmetry in well-trained dressage horses in unridden and unrestrained position and ridden in a dressage frame, and investigated possible associations between gaits. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Seven sound, high-level dressage horses were measured at walk and sitting trot on a treadmill at several speeds under two conditions: with and without rider. Left-right differences in stance duration, stance protraction and retraction based on longitudinal hoof positions, i...
Mayaki AM, Abdul Razak IS, Mohd Adzahan N, Mazlan M, Abdullah R.Equine chronic back pain (CBP) has been linked to different pathologic processes, which directly or indirectly involve spinal structures. Thus, making diagnosis and management very challenging with most horses with the condition recommended for early retirement from athletic activity. This study described the spinal cord lesions and the development of reactive microgliosis and astrocytosis in the spinal cords of horse with CBP. Thoracolumbar spinal cord segments from three horses euthanized because of unresolved CBP were dissected and grossly and histopathologically examined. The expression of...
Graubner C, Bergmann W, Gerber V, Veraa S, Oevermann A, Wijnberg I.Aims: To determine the relation between quantitative electromyography (QEMG) of the cervical ventral serratus muscle, radiographic findings and post-mortem gross and histopathological examination in order to calculate the ability of QEMG to localize the region of cervical compressive neuropathy and myelopathy in horses. Methods: In this clinical, non-randomised, partially blinded study (QEMG and histology), 36 warmblood horses with clinical suspicion of cervical spine disease were examined with QEMG in different segments of the ventral serratus muscle. Results were compared to normative data. ...
Hardeman AM, Byström A, Roepstorff L, Swagemakers JH, van Weeren PR, Serra Bragança FM.Clinical assessment of spinal motion in horses is part of many routine clinical exams but remains highly subjective. A prerequisite for the quantification of spinal motion is the assessment of the expected normal range of motion and variability of back kinematics. The aim of this study was to objectively quantify spinal kinematics and between -measurement, -surface and -day variation in owner-sound horses. In an observational study, twelve owner-sound horses were trotted 12 times on four different paths (hard/soft straight line, soft lunge left and right). Measurements were divided over three ...
MacKechnie-Guire R, MacKechnie-Guire E, Fairfax V, Fisher M, Hargreaves S, Pfau T.There is a paucity of evidence on the effect that rider asymmetry has on equine locomotion. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of rider asymmetry on equine locomotion by using a novel approach to induce rider asymmetry. Ten nonlame horses were recruited for this study. Joint center markers were used to capture 2D kinematics (Quintic Biomechanics) of the horse and rider and horses were equipped with seven inertial sensors positioned at the fifth (T5) and eighteenth (T18) thoracic vertebrae, third lumbar (L3) vertebra, tubera sacrale (TS), and left and right tubera coxae. Rider asy...
Rijckaert J, Raes E, Buczinski S, Dumoulin M, Deprez P, Van Ham L, van Loon G, Pardon B.Spinal cord dysfunction/compression and ataxia are common in horses. Presumptive diagnosis is most commonly based on neurological examination and cervical radiography, but the interest into the diagnostic value of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) with recording of magnetic motor evoked potentials has increased. The problem for the evaluation of diagnostic tests for spinal cord dysfunction is the absence of a gold standard in the living animal. Objective: To compare diagnostic accuracy of TMS, cervical radiography, and neurological examination. Methods: One hundred seventy-four horses ad...
Brown KA, Davidson EJ, Ortved K, Ross MW, Stefanovski D, Wulster KB, Levine DG.To report the long-term outcome of horses treated with interspinous ligament desmotomy (ISLD) for pain associated with overriding dorsal spinous processes (ORDSP) and determine the influence of preoperative diagnostic analgesia on long-term outcome. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Eighteen horses. Methods: Data were collected from horses presenting for ISLD to the University of Pennsylvania New Bolton Center between January 2013 and May 2018. Follow-up of ≥3 months postsurgically was obtained from the owner, trainer, or referring veterinarian. Long-term improvement was compared betw...
Mason C, Greig M.Lower back pain is prevalent in horse riders as a result of the absorption of repetitive and multiplanar propulsive forces from the horse. Global positioning system technology provides potential for in vivo measurement of planar loading during riding. Objective: To quantify the uniaxial loading at the lumbar and cervicothoracic spine during dressage elements. Methods: Repeated measures, randomized order. Methods: Equestrian arena. Patients (or Other Participants): Twenty-one female dressage riders. Methods: Each rider completed walk, rising trot, sitting trot, and canter trials in a randomized...
Haussler KK, Manchon PT, Donnell JR, Frisbie DD.Low-level laser therapy has been used clinically to treat musculoskeletal pain; however, there is limited evidence available to support its use in treating back pain in horses. The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical effectiveness of low-level laser therapy and chiropractic care in treating thoracolumbar pain in competitive western performance horses. The subjects included 61 Quarter Horses actively involved in national western performance competitions judged to have back pain. A randomized, clinical trial was conducted by assigning affected horses to either laser therapy, chi...
Ginés-Díaz A, Martínez-Romero MT, Cejudo A, Aparicio-Sarmiento A, Sainz de Baranda P.Previous research has analyzed how the sport influences sagittal spinal curvatures in young athletes and has found that spinal curves may be modified as a consequence of repeated movement patterns and postures of each discipline. Objective: To analyze sagittal spinal alignment by equestrian discipline and its relation to training load, and to describe "sagittal integrative morphotype" in young riders. Methods: Observational descriptive study. Methods: Training room. Methods: A total of 23 riders (aged 9-17 y)-13 dressage riders (3 males and 10 females) and 10 show jumping riders (5 males and ...
Haussler KK, Pool RR, Clayton HM.The objectives of this observational, cross-sectional study were to characterize and establish the prevalence of osseous proliferation of articular surfaces, joint margins and adjacent soft tissue attachments (i.e., joint capsule and deep spinal muscles) in a mixed population of horses of variable ages, sizes, and breeds to better capture the full spectrum of disease affecting the cervical articular processes. Cranial and caudal articular processes of the cervical and first three thoracic vertebrae (C2-T3) from 55 horses without a primary complaint of neck pain were evaluated for the presence ...
Murray R, Mackechnie-Guire R, Fisher M, Fairfax V.Back pain is frequently recognized in racehorses, but saddle fit and design are rarely assessed. In sport horses, relationships between horse-saddle interaction, back pain, and altered kinematics are established, but few studies investigating horse-saddle interaction in racehorses exist. We hypothesized that reducing pressures under saddles at thoracic (T) vertebrae 10-13 in galloping racehorses is associated with improved limb and lumbosacral kinematics. The objectives of the study were to (1) determine pressure magnitude/distribution under 3 frequently used race-exercise saddles and a saddle...
Rijckaert J, Pardon B, Saey V, Raes E, Van Ham L, Ducatelle R, van Loon G, Deprez P.Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and recording of magnetic motor evoked potentials (MMEP) can detect neurological dysfunction in horses but cutoff values based on confirmed spinal cord dysfunction are lacking. Objective: To determine latency time cutoff for neurological dysfunction. Methods: Five control horses and 17 horses with proprioceptive ataxia. Methods: Case-control study with receiver operating characteristic curve analysis, based on diagnostic imaging, TMS, and histopathological findings. Horses were included if all 3 examinations were performed. Results: Diagnostic imaging an...
Trager LR, Funk RA, Clapp KS, Dahlgren LA, Werre SR, Hodgson DR, Pleasant RS.Although extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT) is a common treatment for horses with back pain, effects on mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) and multifidus muscle cross sectional area (CSA) in the spine are unknown. Objective: To evaluate effects of ESWT on spinal MNT and multifidus muscle CSA in horses with thoracolumbar pain. Methods: Non-randomised trial. Methods: Thoracolumbar spines of 12 horses with thoracolumbar pain were radiographed to document existing pathology. Each horse received three ESWT treatments, 2 weeks apart (days 0, 14, 28). Palpation scores were documented (days ...
Szklarz M, Lipinska A, Slowikowska M, Niedzwiedz A, Marycz K, Janeczek M.Cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM) remains one of the most important abnormalities of the cervical spine resulting in neurological deficits in horses. The aim of the following study was to compare the results of the clinical and neurological examination, the results of myelography and the post mortem anatomical and histological appearance of the spinal cord and cervical vertebrae in a horse with CVSM. Methods: The following study describes a clinical case of an eight-month-old stallion with ataxia. Plain cervical radiographs indicated narrowing of the spinal canal. Conservative ther...
Dippel M, Zsoldos RR, Licka TF.Pressure in the atlanto-axial region due to hyperflexion ('rollkur') may influence the development of a nuchal bursa, as adventitious bursae may be caused by pressure. Investigating the pressure between the nuchal ligament and atlas/axis in a flexed position may provide information on the pathogenesis of nuchal bursitis. In this study, ten equine head and neck specimens with one side of the soft tissues over the cervical vertebral spine removed were placed in lateral recumbency on a table in neutral, mildly flexed, and hyperflexed head and neck positions. Angulations of the neck were measured ...
Schulze N, Ehrle A, Weller R, Fritsch G, Gernhardt J, Ben Romdhane R, Lischer C. Surgical fusion of vertebral segments is a treatment option for horses with cervical stenotic myelopathy or cervical fracture.Degenerative disease affecting adjacent vertebral segments is a reported complication following surgical vertebral fusion in other species, termed adjacent segment disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of cervical vertebral fusion on the biomechanics of adjacent vertebral segments in the horse. Methods: Neck specimens of 12 horses were assessed using computed tomographic imaging. Range of motion (ROM) was determined by measuring the maximum sag...
Veraa S, Bergmann W, Wijnberg ID, Back W, Vernooij H, Nielen M, van den Belt AM.Morphology of the equine cervical intervertebral disc is different from that in humans and small companion animals and published imaging data are scarcely available. The objectives of this exploratory, methods comparison study were (a) to describe MRI features of macroscopically nondegenerated and degenerated intervertebral discs (b) to test associations between spinal location and macroscopic degeneration or MRI-detected annular protrusion and between MRI-detected annular protrusion and macroscopic degeneration, and (c) to define MRI sequences for characterizing equine cervical intervertebral...
Veraa S, de Graaf K, Wijnberg ID, Back W, Vernooij H, Nielen M, Belt AJM.Variation in equine caudal cervical spine morphology at C6 and C7 has high prevalence in Warmblood horses and is suspected to be associated with pain in a large mixed-breed group of horses. At present no data exist on the relationship between radiographic phenotype and clinical presentation in Warmblood horses in a case-control study. Objective: To establish the frequency of radiographically visible morphologic variation in a large group of Warmblood horses with clinical signs and compare this with a group without clinical signs. We hypothesised that occurrence of morphologic variation in the ...
Martin P, Cheze L, Pourcelot P, Desquilbet L, Duray L, Chateau H.Knowledge about the horse-saddle-rider interaction remains limited. The aim of this study was to compare the effect of the rider׳s position at rising trot on the pressure distribution, spine movements, stirrups forces and locomotion of the horse. The horse׳s back movements were measured using IMUs fixed at the levels of thoracic (T6, T12, T16) and lumbar (L2, L5) vertebrae, the pressure distribution using a pressure mat and stirrups forces using force sensors. The horse׳s and rider׳s approximated centres of mass (COM) were calculated using 2D reflective markers. To compare both trot phases...
Hopf S, Buchalla R, Elhöft H, Rubarth O, Börm W.We present a rare case of a combined dislocated odontoid dens fracture type II (Anderson/D'Alonzo) and rotational atlantoaxial luxation in a 15-year-old girl who was involved in a riding accident.She fell off her horse after it had stopped suddenly, losing consciousness for a few minutes. At presentation in the hospital, she had no complaints other than limited, painful neck movement. Radiologically, a posterior dislocation of an odontoid type II fracture (Anderson/D'Alonzo) was found. Computed tomography reconstruction demonstrated a rotational, hooklike fixed luxation of the left atlantoaxia...
Haussler KK.Joint mobilization and manipulation provide important diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for addressing musculoskeletal issues in veterinary medicine. Soft tissue and joint mobilization are used to assess the quality and quantity of joint range of motion and as a primary means of treating musculoskeletal disorders. Spinal manipulation was shown to be effective for reducing pain, improving flexibility, reducing muscle tone, and improving symmetry of spinal kinematics in horses. Because of potential misuse and safety issues, joint mobilization and manipulative therapies should be provided onl...
Sweers L, Carstens A.Two horses with discospondylitis are described with emphasis on the imaging modalities used and their contribution to the final diagnosis and outcome. Radiographic findings were vertebral endplate lysis with sclerosis in both horses, with additional vertebral subluxation and ventral spondylosis in one horse. Ultrasonographic findings included vertebral malalignment and obliteration of the intervertebral disc by spondylotic bone in one horse and irregular endplates, a widened disc space, a hypoechoic paravertebral abscess and hypoechoic, atrophic adjacent musculature with loss of linear fiber p...
Jeffcott LB, Hickman J.This paper describes the surgical treatment of 14 horses exhibiting chronic back pain attributed to impaction and overriding of the dorsal spines in the thoracolumbar region. The technique involved the resection of the summits of one or more dorsal spines following midline division of the supraspinous ligament. All the horses returned to full work after a convalescent period of at least four months, and 12 of them showed considerable improvement in their form and performance. A post-surgical complication encountered in one case was the development of new bone on the edge of a resected spine. T...
Haussler KK, Pool RR, Clayton HM.The objectives of this observational, cross-sectional study were to characterize and establish the prevalence of osseous proliferation of articular surfaces, joint margins and adjacent soft tissue attachments (i.e., joint capsule and deep spinal muscles) in a mixed population of horses of variable ages, sizes, and breeds to better capture the full spectrum of disease affecting the cervical articular processes. Cranial and caudal articular processes of the cervical and first three thoracic vertebrae (C2-T3) from 55 horses without a primary complaint of neck pain were evaluated for the presence ...
MacKechnie-Guire R, Pfau T.High-level dressage horses regularly perform advanced movements, requiring coordination and force transmission between front and hind limbs across the thoracolumbosacral region. This study aimed at quantifying kinematic differences in dressage horses when ridden in sitting trot-i.e. with additional load applied in the thoracolumbar region-compared with trotting in-hand. Inertial sensors were glued on to the midline of the thoracic (T) and lumbar (L) spine at T5, T13, T18, L3 and middle of the left and right tubera sacrale of ten elite dressage horses (Mean±SD), age 11±1 years, height 1.70±0...
Silver JR, Parry JM.The increasing incidence of horse-riding accidents, which are often severe in nature, prompted a pilot study of a questionnaire designed to elucidate the cause of such accidents. It was hoped that, on a larger scale, the information gleaned would highlight possible preventative measures which might improve the safety of an important recreational pursuit enjoyed by young and old from many walks of life. A retrospective study of riders sustaining serious spinal injuries admitted to Stoke Mandeville Hospital was compared with riders sustaining minor but significant injuries as the accidents came ...
Zimmerman M, Dyson S, Murray R.Back pain is common in horses, but there has been no large-scale in-depth study describing radiographic changes of the spinous processes, the relationship between radiographic and scintigraphic findings, and the effect of size, age, breed, or discipline. The objectives were to investigate the frequency of occurrence in horses with perceived back pain of: (1) radiographic alteration of the spinous process structure; (2) increased radiopharmaceutical uptake (IRU) in the spinous processes; and (3) to compare radiographic and scintigraphic findings; and to determine if there was breed, gender, age...
Clayton HM, Kaiser LJ, Lavagnino M, Stubbs NC.To identify differences in intersegmental bending angles in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar portions of the vertebral column between the end positions during performance of 3 dynamic mobilization exercises in cervical lateral bending in horses. Methods: 8 nonlame horses. Methods: Skin-fixed markers on the head, cervical transverse processes (C1-C6) and spinous processes (T6, T8, T10, T16, L2, L6, S2, and S4) were tracked with a motion analysis system with the horses standing in a neutral position and in 3 lateral bending positions to the left and right sides during chin-to-girth, chin-to-hi...
Ohba T, Ebata S, Ando T, Ichikawa J, Clinton D, Haro H.Hematoma of the ligamentum flavum is a rare cause of neural compression, for which treatment has consisted of excising the hematoma via open surgical approaches, including total laminectomy or bilateral partial laminectomy. This article presents the first report of a microscope-assisted endoscopic decompression to resect a hematoma of the ligamentum flavum.A 52-year-old man presented with back and leg pain, as well as difficulty initiating micturation. Magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated an epidural mass at L5/S1 that was continuous with the facet joint. Visualization was obtained via an e...
Lange CD, Axiak Flammer S, Gerber V, Kindt D, Koch C.It appears that complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) is used increasingly often in horses for the assessment and treatment of suspected orthopaedic problems, especially back problems. The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of CAM use for the management of orthopaedic problems in a defined population of Swiss Warmblood horses. A total of 239 owners and caretakers of horses from a pre-defined database were called by a veterinarian to participate in the survey. A standardized questionnaire was designed to determine, for each orthopaedic case, where the localization of the pr...
Mitchell CW, Nykamp SG, Foster R, Cruz R, Montieth G.To determine the accuracy of magnetic resonance imaging for diagnosing cervical stenotic myelopathy in horses, 39 horses with spinal ataxia and 20 control horses underwent clinical and neurologic examinations, cervical radiographs, euthanasia, magnetic resonance (MR) imaging of the cervical spine and necropsy. Twenty-four horses were diagnosed with cervical stenotic myelopathy, 5 with cervical vertebral stenosis, 7 with idiopathic ataxia, 3 horses had other causes of ataxia, and 20 were controls. The MR images were assessed for spinal cord intensity changes, presence of spinal cord compression...
Mattoon JS, Drost WT, Grguric MR, Auld DM, Reed SM.Degenerative changes and osteochondrosis of articular processes are common sources of stiffness or pain in the equine cervical spine. Temporary relief of the clinical signs related to these maladies may be achieved by injecting corticosteroids into the joint. This is routinely done by ultrasound-guided needle placement. The cervical articular processes and joint form an easily identifiable sonographic landmark, a step-like echogenic surface described as having the appearance of a "chair."
Moore BR, Holbrook TC, Stefanacci JD, Reed SM, Tate LP, Menard MC.The cervical spines of 6 horses with cervical stenotic myelopathy (CSM) were examined using myelography and contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CECT). Histopathology of the spinal cord of these horses identified 10 neurologically significant compressive lesions. Myelography and CECT were both able to demonstrate all 10 spinal cord compressive lesions, but myelography falsely identified 2 sites and CECT falsely identified 1 site as compressive lesions of the spinal cord which were not supported by histopathology. Additional qualitative information was obtained by CECT regarding the source, s...
Santinelli I, Beccati F, Arcelli R, Pepe M.There are scant data on the incidence of different anatomical variants of the equine caudal cervical spine, despite interest in cervical pathology. Objective: To identify morphological radiographic variation in the 6th and 7th cervical vertebrae and the first thoracic vertebra in horses of different breeds and to determine whether there are breed- and sex-related differences. Methods: Retrospective descriptive study. Methods: Radiographs of the cervical spine of 270 horses were assessed retrospectively. The Chi-square test, or Fisher's exact test when appropriate, was used to test for associat...
Janes JG, Garrett KS, McQuerry KJ, Waddell S, Voor MJ, Reed SM, Williams NM, MacLeod JN.Skeletal lesions in the articular processes of cervical vertebrae C2 to C7 were compared between Thoroughbred horses with cervical stenotic myelopathy (17 males, 2 females; age, 6-50 months) and controls (6 males, 3 females; age, 9-67 months). Lesions identified by magnetic resonance imaging occurred with an increased frequency and severity in diseased horses and were not limited to sites of spinal cord compression. Lesions involved both the articular cartilage and trabecular bone and were further characterized using micro-computed tomography and histopathology. The most common histologic lesi...
Haussler KK, Hill AE, Puttlitz CM, McIlwraith CW.To measure passive spinal movements induced during dorsoventral mobilization and evaluate effects of induced pain and spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) on passive vertebral mobility in standing horses. Methods: 10 healthy adult horses. Methods: Baseline vertical displacements, applied force, stiffness, and frequency of the oscillations were measured during dorsoventral spinal mobilization at 5 thoracolumbar intervertebral sites. As a model for back pain, fixation pins were temporarily implanted into the dorsal spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae at 2 of the intervertebral sites. Vertebral ...
Johnston C, Holmt K, Faber M, Erichsen C, Eksell P, Drevemo S.The relationship between structure and function is important in the judgement of the horse. Twenty sound riding horses walked and trotted on a treadmill. The movement of the backs of each of the horses was measured using a commercially available movement analysis system. Morphometric, spatiotemporal and kinematic information were correlated to investigate the effect of conformation on movement. Taller and heavier horses seem to have longer thoracic and lumbar backs, and are wider at the pelvis. Horses with longer strides extended and flexed their backs in the caudal saddle region to a greater ...
Claridge HA, Piercy RJ, Parry A, Weller R.REASONS FOR STUDY: Detailed anatomy of the equine cervical articular process joints (APJs) has received little attention in the literature and yet disorders of this joint have been linked to spinal cord compression resulting in severe clinical signs such as ataxia and weakness. This study aimed to describe the 3D anatomy of the APJ in relation to the spinal cord in the horse. Objective: Artificial distension of the APJ causes the joint pouches to extend into the vertebral canal, with the potential for APJ effusion to cause spinal cord compressive disease. Methods: Six cadaveric necks (C1-C7) o...
Yamada K, Sato F, Hada T, Horiuchi N, Ikeda H, Nishihara K, Sasaki N, Kobayashi Y, Nambo Y.Five Thoroughbred foals (age, 8-33 weeks; median age, 31 weeks; weight, 122-270 kg; median weight, 249 kg) exhibiting ataxia with suspected cervical myelopathy (n=4) and limb malformation (n=1) were subjected to computed tomographic (CT) myelography. The areas of the subarachnoid space and cervical cord were measured on transverse CT images. The area of the cervical cord was divided by the area of subarachnoid space, and stenosis ratios were quantitatively evaluated and compared on the basis of histopathological examination. The sites with a ratio above 52.8% could have been primary lesion sit...
Heim C, Pfau T, Gerber V, Schweizer C, Doherr M, Schüpbach-Regula G, Witte S.The diagnosis of equine back disorders is challenging. Objectively determining movement of the vertebral column may therefore be of value in a clinical setting. Objective: To establish whether surface-mounted inertial measurement units (IMUs) can be used to establish normal values for range of motion (ROM) of the vertebral column in a uniform population of horses trotting under different conditions. Methods: Vertebral ROM was established in Franches-Montagnes stallions and a general population of horses and the variability in measurements compared between the two groups. Repeatability and the ...
von Peinen K, Wiestner T, Bogisch S, Roepstorff L, van Weeren PR, Weishaupt MA.The exact relationship between the saddle pressure pattern during one stride cycle and the movements of horse and rider at the walk are poorly understood and have never been investigated in detail. Objective: The movements of rider and horse account for the force distribution pattern under the saddle. Methods: Vertical ground reaction forces (GRF), kinematics of horse and rider as well as saddle forces (FS) were measured synchronously in 7 high level dressage horses while being ridden on an instrumented treadmill at walk. Discrete values of the total saddle forces (FStot) were determined for e...
Dykgraaf S, Dechant JE, Johns JL, Christopher MM, Bolt DM, Snyder JR.To determine the effect of intrathecal amikacin administration and repeated tenovaginocentesis on the total nucleated cell count (TNCC), total protein (TP) concentration and cytologic characteristics of synovial fluid of the equine digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS). Methods: Randomized, cross-over experimental design. Methods: Adult horses (n=8). Methods: Synovial fluid was aseptically collected from the DFTS and either 1 mL amikacin sulfate (250 mg/mL) or lactated Ringer's solution (LRS) was injected into the DFTS. Serial synovial fluid samples were obtained at 0, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hours. ...
Gerhauser I, Geburek F, Wohlsein P.Perosomus elumbis represents a rare congenital anomaly characterized by aplasia of the lumbosacral spinal cord and vertebrae. This anomaly is often associated with arthrogryposis and malformations of the urogenital and intestinal tract. This report describes the first case of perosomus elumbis in an aborted Thoroughbred foal associated with cerebral aplasia with meningocele, cranioschisis, spina bifida, a fused urogenital and intestinal tracts lined by a cutaneous mucosa without uterine glands, atresia ani, and arthrogryposis of the hind legs. Immunohistochemistry detected no abnormalities in ...
Wilson G, Martin D, Morton JP, Close GL.Despite consistent reports of poor bone health in male jockeys, it is not yet known if this is a consequence of low energy availability or lack of an osteogenic stimulus. Given the rationale that low energy availability is a contributing factor in low bone health, we tested the hypothesis that both hip and lumbar bone mineral density (BMD) should progressively worsen in accordance with the years of riding. In a cross-sectional design, male apprentice (n = 17) and senior (n = 14) jockeys (matched for body mass and fat-free mass) were assessed for hip and lumbar spine BMD, as well as bot...
Merighi A, Kar S, Gibson SJ, Ghidella S, Gobetto A, Peirone SM, Polak JM.The distribution of calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), enkephalin, galanin, neuropeptide Y (NPY), somatostatin, tachykinins and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) was compared in cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral segmental levels of spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia of horse and pig. In both species, immunoreactivity for the peptides under study was observed at all segmental levels of the spinal cord. Peptide-immunoreactive fibres were generally concentrated in laminae I-III, the region around the central canal, and in the autonomic nuclei. A general increase in the number of i...
