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Topic:Vaccination
Vaccination in horses involves the administration of antigenic material to stimulate an immune response, providing protection against specific infectious diseases. This process is a key component of preventive equine healthcare, aiming to reduce the incidence and severity of illnesses such as equine influenza, tetanus, and West Nile virus. Vaccines can be administered via various routes and may contain live attenuated, inactivated, or subunit components. The immune response elicited by vaccination helps in the development of immunological memory, enabling horses to respond more effectively upon exposure to the actual pathogen. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the development, efficacy, and safety of vaccines in equine populations.
Strangvac: A recombinant fusion protein vaccine that protects against strangles, caused by Streptococcus equi. The host-restricted pathogen Streptococcus equi causes strangles in the horse, which is characterised by abscessation of the lymph nodes of the head and neck. The disease is endemic throughout the world causing considerable welfare and economic cost to the horse industry. Here we report the results of three studies where ponies were vaccinated with combinations of recombinant fusion proteins to optimise vaccine production and the level of protection conferred. Optimal protection was conferred by a prototype multicomponent subunit vaccine, Strangvac 4, which contained eight proteins CNE, SclC, ...
Estimating the potential for disease spread in horses associated with an equestrian show in Ontario, Canada using an agent-based model. Participation in equestrian shows provides opportunities for contact between horses, increasing the risk of disease introduction and spread within the population. The magnitude of a potential outbreak, and the impact of disease prevention and control strategies, can be estimated using simulation modeling. The objectives of this study were to (1) examine the potential spread of equine influenza in a network of horses associated with a 2-day equestrian show in Ontario, Canada; and (2) determine the effectiveness of several interventions during a simulated outbreak. A discrete-event, continuous-t...
Investigating the epidemiology of EI epidemic spread in the Province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan in 2015-16. EI in non-vaccinated population causes disruption and economic losses. To identify the risk factors associated with the EI epidemics in equids in Pakistan, a 1:1 matched case control study was conducted during 2015-2016. Including a total of 197 laboratory confirmed cases and negative controls, matched on the basis of geography, time of sampling, specie and age. A piloted questionnaire was used to collect data regarding risk factors associated with the occurrence of EI in face to face interviews. Conditional logistic regression was performed to analyze the data. A total of 16 out of 23 variabl...
Equine Vaccines: How, When and Why? Report of the Vaccinology Session, French Equine Veterinarians Association, 2016, Reims. To date, vaccination is one of the most efficient methods of prevention against equine infectious diseases. The vaccinology session, which was organised during the annual meeting of the French Equine Veterinarians Association (AVEF) at Reims (France) in 2016, aimed to approach three subjects of importance for the equine industry. Vaccination against three major equine diseases were used as examples: equine influenza (equine influenza virus), rhinopneumonitis (equine herpes virus 1/4), and tetanus ( neuro-toxin). (1) Emergency vaccination: while it has been very successful to reduce the impact ...
Evolution of equine influenza viruses (H3N8) during a Brazilian outbreak, 2015. Equine influenza is one of the major respiratory infectious diseases in horses. An equine influenza virus outbreak was identified in vaccinated and unvaccinated horses in a veterinary school hospital in São Paulo, SP, Brazil, in September 2015. The twelve equine influenza viruses isolated belonged to Florida Clade 1. The hemagglutinin and neuraminidase amino acid sequences were compared with the recent isolates from North and South America and the World Organisation for Animal Health recommended Florida Clade 1 vaccine strain. The hemagglutinin amino acid sequences had nine substitutions, com...
Detection of anti-Leptospira inhibitory antibodies in horses after vaccination. Leptospirosis is a relevant zoonosis that affects the reproductive performance of livestock, impairing the economy. Few studies have demonstrated the effects of vaccination against leptospirosis on naturally exposed horses. This study aimed to detect anti-Leptospira inhibitory antibodies in horses after vaccination. A total of 54 mares were studied using Growth Inhibition Test (GIT) in three moments. The present results demonstrate the usefulness of GIT for confirming inhibitory effects of specific antibody production. Results have also demonstrated that vaccination positively influenced on th...
Playing with fire – What is influencing horse owners’ decisions to not vaccinate their horses against deadly Hendra virus infection? Hendra virus is a zoonotic paramyxovirus, which causes severe respiratory and neurological disease in horses and humans. Since 2012, the Hendra virus sub-unit G vaccine has been available for horse vaccination in Australia. Uptake of the vaccine has been limited and spill-over events of Hendra virus infection in horses continue to occur. We conducted an online, questionnaire-based cross-sectional study of 376 horse owners belonging to a variety of different equestrian clubs in Queensland, Australia, to identify risk factors for non-vaccination against Hendra virus. A total of 43.1% (N = 162) o...
Descriptive and network analyses of the equine contact network at an equestrian show in Ontario, Canada and implications for disease spread. Identifying the contact structure within a population of horses attending a competition is an important element towards understanding the potential for the spread of equine pathogens as the horses subsequently travel from location to location. However, there is limited information in Ontario, Canada to quantify contact patterns of horses. The objective of this study was to describe the network of potential contacts associated with an equestrian show to determine how this network structure may influence potential disease transmission. Results: This was a descriptive study of horses attending an...
Australian Rotavirus Surveillance Program annual report, 2015. The Australian Rotavirus Surveillance Program, together with collaborating laboratories Australia-wide, reports the rotavirus genotypes responsible for the hospitalisation of children with acute gastroenteritis during the period 1 January to 31 December 2015. During the survey period, 1,383 faecal samples were referred for rotavirus G and P genotype analysis, and of these, 1,031 were confirmed as rotavirus positive. A total of 634 specimens had been collected from children under 5 years of age, while 397 were from older children and adults. Genotype analysis of samples from both children an...
How to Meet the Last OIE Expert Surveillance Panel Recommendations on Equine Influenza (EI) Vaccine Composition: A Review of the Process Required for the Recombinant Canarypox-Based EI Vaccine. Vaccination is highly effective to prevent, control, and limit the impact of equine influenza (EI), a major respiratory disease of horses. However, EI vaccines should contain relevant equine influenza virus (EIV) strains for optimal protection. The OIE expert surveillance panel annually reviews EIV evolution and, since 2010, the use of Florida clade 1 and 2 sub-lineages representative vaccine strains is recommended. This report summarises the development process of a fully- updated recombinant canarypox-based EI vaccine in order to meet the last OIE recommendations, including the vaccine mode ...
Comparison of assays for the detection of West Nile virus antibodies in equine serum after natural infection or vaccination. West Nile virus (WNV) mainly infects birds, horses and humans. Outcomes of the infection range from mild uncharacteristic signs to fatal neurologic disease. The main objectives of the present study were to measure serum IgG and IgM antibodies in naturally exposed and vaccinated horses and to compare results of haemagglutination inhibition test (HIT), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and plaque reduction neutralisation test (PRNT). Altogether 224 animals were tested by HIT for WNV antibodies and 41 horses were simultaneously examined by ELISA and PRNT. After primary screening for WNV a...
Estimating the economic impact of a possible equine and human epidemic of West Nile virus infection in Belgium. This study aimed at estimating, in a prospective scenario, the potential economic impact of a possible epidemic of WNV infection in Belgium, based on 2012 values for the equine and human health sectors, in order to increase preparedness and help decision-makers. Modelling of risk areas, based on the habitat suitable for Culex pipiens, the main vector of the virus, allowed us to determine equine and human populations at risk. Characteristics of the different clinical forms of the disease based on past epidemics in Europe allowed morbidity among horses and humans to be estimated. The main costs ...
Immune Dysfunction in Aged Horses. The aging process in people is associated with changes in adaptive and innate immune responses. Similar changes occur in aged horses. Age-related progressive impairment in the ability to respond to pathogen challenge and an increased inflammatory reactivity may predispose geriatric horses to many diseases of old age. Specific recommendations for immune modification of older horses, including an age-appropriate vaccination schedule, are not currently available. In addition, the effect of old age on risk of infectious disease is poorly documented. More work is needed to better understand the int...
Detection and differentiation of wild-type and a vaccine strain of Streptococcus equi ssp. equi using pyrosequencing. Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi), the causative agent of strangles, is an important equine pathogen. Strangles is a highly contagious disease and a commercial modified live vaccine (MLV) is used for protection, which although effective, may also result in clinical signs of the disease. A rapid means to differentiate between the MLV and wild-type infection is crucial for quarantine release and limiting the disease spread. This study describes the use of a pyrosequencing assay targeting a single nucleotide deletion upstream of the SzPSe gene to distinguish between the wild-type and v...
The first reported Florida clade 1 virus in the Nordic countries, isolated from a Swedish outbreak of equine influenza in 2011. Equine Influenza Virus (EIV) is a major cause of respiratory disease in horses and the virus constantly undergoes antigenic drift. Here we characterize and describe the HA1 and the NA genes of H3N8 within samples obtained from outbreaks in Sweden during November-December 2011. Both clade 1 and clade 2 viruses of the Florida sublineage were identified. The index case of clade 2 was transported to Sweden from Spain through the Netherlands, whereas the clade 1 had its origin from a Swedish stud farm. The clade 1 virus was efficiently spread between training yards by unvaccinated young horses, but...
Alphaviral equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern, Western and Venezuelan). Summary Alphaviral equine encephalomyelitis is a mosquito-borne infection that causes severe neurological disease and fatalities in horses and humans in the Americas. Consequently, the equine alphaviruses (Eastern, Western and Venezuelan) are of considerable concern worldwide and are notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health. In addition, these diseases are considered a potent potential biological weapon, emphasising the need to develop an effective vaccine. Alphaviral equine encephalomyelitis is caused by Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (EEEV), Western equine encephalomyel...
Intangible and Economic Impacts of Hendra Virus Prevention Strategies. Hendra virus (HeV), a potentially fatal zoonotic disease spread by flying foxes, to date has always infected humans via a spillover event from equine HeV infection. In a theoretical case study, we compared the impacts of two different HeV prevention strategies - vaccination and flying fox roost removal - using a recently developed framework that considers different stakeholder group perspectives. The perspectives of the four selected stakeholder groups regarding intangibles were inferred from public discussions and coverage in the media. For all stakeholder groups, the option to vaccinate hors...
Duration of tetanus immunoglobulin G titres following basic immunisation of horses. Recommendations for prophylactic vaccination against tetanus in horses vary greatly between countries and have scarce scientific support in the peer-reviewed literature. In human medicine, recommended booster vaccination intervals are also very variable, but are considerably longer than for horses. More information is needed about the duration of immunity induced by modern vaccines. Objective: To investigate if the duration of antibody titres previously determined to be protective against tetanus differ from what is indicated by recommended vaccination intervals for horses. Methods: Prospectiv...
Surgical resolution of accidental intramuscular injection of Gudair® vaccine in a mare. This case report describes the accidental intramuscular administration of 20 mL Gudair® vaccine to a 7-year-old Standardbred mare and successful treatment of the resulting inflammatory reaction by radical surgical resection.
Evaluation of Cross-Protection of a Lineage 1 West Nile Virus Inactivated Vaccine against Natural Infections from a Virulent Lineage 2 Strain in Horses, under Field Conditions. Although experimental data regarding cross-protection of horse West Nile virus (WNV) vaccines against lineage 2 infections exist, the cross-protective efficacy of these vaccines under field conditions has not been demonstrated. This study was conducted to evaluate the capability of an inactivated lineage 1 vaccine (Equip WNV) to protect against natural infections from the Nea Santa-Greece-2010 lineage 2 strain. In total, 185 WNV-seronegative horses in Thessaloniki, Greece, were selected during 2 consecutive years (2011 and 2012); 140 were immunized, and 45 were used as controls. Horses were ex...
Autologous vaccination for the treatment of equine sarcoids: 18 cases (2009-2014). The purpose of this retrospective case series was to assess the outcome of an autologous vaccination procedure on single and multiple sarcoid lesions, determine complication rate, and report owner satisfaction. Medical records (18 cases) from January 2009 through May 2014 were evaluated to identify horses undergoing the procedure. Signalment, number, size, anatomic location of lesions, and type of historical treatment were recorded. Follow-up was obtained via standardized owner survey, veterinary examination, and digital images. Data recorded and analyzed included ancillary therapies post-proc...
Antiviral agents against equid alphaherpesviruses: Current status and perspectives. Equid herpesvirus infections cause respiratory, neurological and reproductive syndromes. Despite preventive and control measures and the availability of vaccines and immunostimulants, herpesvirus infections still constitute a major threat to equine health and for the equine industry worldwide. Antiviral drugs, particularly nucleoside analogues and foscarnet, are successfully used for the treatment of human alphaherpesvirus infections. In equine medicine, the use of antiviral medications in alphaherpesvirus infections would decrease the excretion of virus and diminish the risk of contagion and ...
Epizootiological Investigation of Getah Virus Infection among Racehorses in Japan in 2014. To clarify the factors causing an outbreak in 2014 of Getah virus infection among racehorses at the Miho training center, Japan, we isolated virus strains and performed an epizootiological investigation of affected horses and related horse populations. Three Getah virus isolates were recovered from clinical samples, and one of them (14-I-605) was used in a virus-neutralizing test. Of the affected horses (n = 33), 20 (60.6%) were 2-year-olds. We investigated the histories of Getah virus vaccination of the affected horses and the whole population at the Miho training center. Among the 2-year-old...
In vivo assessment of equine arteritis virus vaccine improvement by disabling the deubiquitinase activity of papain-like protease 2. Arteriviruses are a family of positive-stranded RNA viruses that includes the prototypic equine arteritis virus (EAV) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). Although several vaccines against these viruses are commercially available there is room for improvement, especially in the case of PRRSV. The ability of arteriviruses to counteract the immune response is thought to decrease the efficacy of the current modified live virus vaccines. We have recently shown that the deubiquitinase (DUB) activity of EAV papain-like protease 2 (PLP2) is important for the inhibition of ...
Anthrax as an example of the One Health concept. Anthrax is a peracute, acute or subacute multispecies bacterial infection that occurs on many continents. It is one of the oldest infectious diseases known; the biblical fifth and sixth plagues (Exodus chapters 7 to 9) that affected first livestock and then humans were probably anthrax. From the earliest historical records until development of an effective vaccine midway through the 20th Century, anthrax was one of the foremost causes of uncontrolled mortality in cattle, sheep, goats, horses and pigs, with 'spill over' into humans, worldwide. With the development of the Sterne spore vaccine, a...
Molecular characterization of equine rotaviruses isolated in Europe in 2013: implications for vaccination. Equine group A rotavirus (RVAs) mainly cause disease in foals under the age of 3 months. Only sporadic data are available on the circulation of RVAs in equine populations in Europe. In this study, 65 diarrheic samples from foals under 4 months of age were collected in Belgium (n=32), Germany (n=17), Slovenia (n=5), Sweden (n=4), Hungary (n=3), Italy (n=2), France (n=1) and The Netherlands (n=1). Forty percent of these samples (n=26) were found to be RVA positive by a quantitative RT-PCR assay. The viral load in 11 of these samples was sufficiently high to be (partially) genotyped. G3, G14 and ...
Vaccination with a live multi-gene deletion strain protects horses against virulent challenge with Streptococcus equi. Strangles, caused by Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi) is one of the most frequently diagnosed infectious diseases of horses and there remains a significant need to develop new preventative vaccines. We generated a live vaccine strain of S. equi containing deletions in six genes: sagA, hasA, aroB, pyrC, seM and recA, which was administered to nine Welsh mountain ponies via the intramuscular route. Four vaccinated ponies developed adverse reactions following the first vaccination from which the live vaccine strain was isolated. Two of these ponies were withdrawn from the study and se...
A review of the equine age-related changes in the immune system: comparisons between human and equine aging, with focus on lung-specific immune-aging. The equine aging process involves many changes to the immune system that may be related to genetics, the level of nutrition, the environment and/or an underlying subclinical disease. Geriatric horses defined as horses above the age of 20, exhibit a decline in body condition, muscle tone and general well-being. It is not known whether these changes contribute to decreased immune function or are the result of declining immune function. Geriatric years are characterized by increased susceptibility to infections and a reduced antibody response to vaccination as a result of changes in the immune sy...
The impact of different equine influenza vaccine products and other factors on equine influenza antibody levels in Thoroughbred racehorses. More knowledge of equine influenza (EI) vaccine usage in training yards and the factors that influence serological response to vaccination are required to determine evidence-based vaccination strategies. Objective: The aim of this study was to ascertain the vaccination history of a population of Thoroughbred racehorses and identify factors that impacted on their antibody titres against EI. Methods: Observational field study. Methods: The study population consisted of 102 vaccinated Thoroughbred horses in training on a single premises. The vaccination histories recorded in their official passpo...
Equine viral arteritis. Equine arteritis virus (EAV), the causative agent of equine viral arteritis (EVA), is a respiratory and reproductive disease that occurs throughout the world. EAV infection is highly species-specific and exclusively limited to members of the family Equidae, which includes horses, donkeys, mules, and zebras. EVA is an economically important disease and outbreaks could cause significant losses to the equine industry. The primary objective of this article is to summarize current understanding of EVA, specifically the disease, pathogenesis, epidemiology, host immune response, vaccination and treat...
