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Topic:Athletic Horses
The topic of athletic horses encompasses the study and analysis of horses that are trained and conditioned for performance in various disciplines such as racing, show jumping, dressage, and eventing. These horses are subject to specialized training regimens and nutritional plans to optimize their physical capabilities and performance outcomes. Research in this area often focuses on aspects such as biomechanics, cardiovascular fitness, muscle physiology, and injury prevention. This topic includes a collection of peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the physiological adaptations, training methodologies, and health management practices associated with maintaining and enhancing the performance of athletic horses.
Effects of trotting speed on muscle activity and kinematics in saddlehorses. A thorough knowledge of the horse's back and limb movements at different speeds is important in the design of training programmes and the prevention of speed-related injuries. The objective of this study was to investigate changes in muscle activity and kinematics of the trot with increased speed. To evaluate these effects, 4 Saddlehorses were recorded while trotting on a horizontal treadmill at speeds ranging from 3.5-6.0 m/s. The 3-D trajectories of skin markers on the left side of the horse and the dorsal midline of the trunk were established. Electrical activity was obtained simultaneously...
Jumping characteristics of naïve foals: lead changes and description of temporal and linear parameters. The selection of foals as future showjumpers remains a subjective process based on qualitative parameters; and hence, frequently suffers from disparity in the criteria used by experts in the field. A detailed biomechanical description of foals while jumping would be most helpful in providing a better basis for the accurate assessment of their future athletic ability. The Qualisys Pro Reflex system was used to capture 3-dimensional kinematics of 41 Dutch Warmblood foals age 6 months free jumping a vertical fence, preceded by a cross pole fence. The left lead was the most preferred lead for both...
Relationship between body composition, blood volume and maximal oxygen uptake. It has long been known that body mass and, more specifically, lean body mass are strongly correlated with maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) in man and animals. However, there are no data to date describing this phenomenon in the horse. The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between body composition and VO2max in the horse. Twenty-three healthy and unfit Standardbred mares performed an incremental exercise test (GXT) to measure VO2max. Rump fat thickness (RTH), a measure of fat covering, was measured using B-mode ultrasound. Plasma volume, total blood volume and red cell volume w...
Influence of draw reins on ground reaction forces at the trot. According to riding texts, draw reins are supposed to support increased collection. This has not been measured objectively. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether a horse ridden with draw reins would relatively increase weightbearing of the hindquarters while worked with the draw reins compared to a normal rein. Ground reaction forces were measured in 8 horses at the slow trot over a force plate in 3 different experimental set-ups: 1) riding with only a draw rein (DR); 2) riding with the combination of a normal and a draw rein (NR-DR) and 3) riding with a normal rein (...
Carbonic anhydrase activity and sweat gland morphology in trained and untrained Standardbred trotters. Sweat gland morphology and carbonic anhydrase (CA) distribution was studied after exercise in trained and untrained horses using a histochemical technique and light microscopic image analysis. Three trained and 3 untrained Standardbred trotters performed an exercise test (20 min trot at 6 m/s with 5 min walk at 1.8 m/s in the beginning and end) on a high-speed treadmill at 35 degrees C. Skin biopsies were taken before exercise and after trot. The fluid loss after exercise was 10, 12 and 12 g/kg bwt in the untrained horses and 4, 6 and 11 g/kg in the trained. Trained horses had a larger cell ar...
A lactate-guided conditioning programme to improve endurance performance. Blood lactate measurements are used widely in horses to assess athletic performance, but there are few published data on using lactate as a guide for endurance improvement. The velocity at which blood lactate concentration ([LA]) of 4 mmol/l is reached (v4) is widely used to determine fitness. In an earlier study of v4, exercise at low intensities for longer duration was more effective at improving endurance than shorter, higher intensities. However, the prescription was unchanged during the study (6 weeks). We hypothesised that, to produce greater improvement in v4 in the same time frame, it ...
Effects of somatotropin and training on indices of exercise capacity in Standardbreds. The recent availability of recombinant equine somatotropin (eST) has led to concern about its use as an ergogenic aid in racehorses. This study was undertaken to investigate the changes in exercise capacity in maturing horses in a training programme, and to assess whether eST is an ergogenic aid to this group. We tested the hypothesis that the combination of training and eST, compared to training alone, would further improve exercise capacity in maturing Standardbreds, by virtue of ST's anabolic effects and potential to enhance cardiac function, circulating fluid volume and red cell mass. Twel...
Effect of conformational aspects on the movement of the equine back. The relationship between structure and function is important in the judgement of the horse. Twenty sound riding horses walked and trotted on a treadmill. The movement of the backs of each of the horses was measured using a commercially available movement analysis system. Morphometric, spatiotemporal and kinematic information were correlated to investigate the effect of conformation on movement. Taller and heavier horses seem to have longer thoracic and lumbar backs, and are wider at the pelvis. Horses with longer strides extended and flexed their backs in the caudal saddle region to a greater ...
Effects of ageing and training on maximal heart rate and VO2max. The purpose of this study was to test the hypotheses that ageing would result in a decline in maximal heart rate (HRmax) and maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max) and, secondarily, that those effects would be reversible with training. Eighteen, healthy, unfit Standardbred mares representing 3 age groups: young (Y = mean +/- s.e. 6.8 +/- 0.4 years, n = 6); middle-aged (MA = 15.2 +/- 0.4 years, n = 6); and old (O = 27.0 +/- 0.2 years, n = 6) were used. HRmax, VO2max and oxygen pulse at VO2max (OPmax) and the velocities producing HRmax (VHRmax) and VO2max (VVO2max) were measured during pretraining an...
Analysis of trotter gait on the track by accelerometry and image analysis. The aim of this study was to describe the correlation between the phases of the limb cycle of trotters on the track and specific points on the acceleration curves obtained from a new gait analysis system. We compared kinematic data obtained by video image analysis and 3-dimensional acceleration recordings made on 3 French trotters in training. They trotted on a race track at speeds of 8.33, 10 and 11.66 m/s, with a final stretch at maximum speed. Their locomotion was recorded with a synchronised video camera at a frame frequency of 200 Hz and with the Equimétrix gait analysis system. The gait...
Plasma aldosterone concentration and renal sodium excretion are altered during the first days of training. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether the training-induced hypervolaemic response seen in the horse is associated with aldosterone-mediated renal mechanisms affecting sodium conservation during the first days of training. Five healthy, Standardbred mares (weight 450-500 kg, age 4-8 years) that were unfit, but accustomed to running on the treadmill, were used to test the hypothesis that repeated submaximal exercise would alter plasma aldosterone (ALDO) concentration and renal excretion of electrolytes in horses within the first 3 days of training. The experiment consisted of...
Movements of thoracic and abdominal compartments during ventilation at rest and during exercise. The present investigation utilised simultaneous measurements of chest (Ch) and abdominal (Ab) circumferences and respiratory airflow to test the hypothesis that Ch circumferential expansion contributes proportionally little to tidal volume in the running Thoroughbred. During exercise, there were only small changes in Ch and Ab circumference and no increase with increasing tidal volume. At rest, walk and trot, the flow, Ch and Ab signals were in phase. However, during canter and gallop, the Ch and Ab changes were 180 degrees out of phase with each other and both were out of phase with airflow. ...
Changes in skeletal muscle GLUT4 content and muscle membrane glucose transport following 6 weeks of exercise training. This study examined changes in skeletal muscle GLUT4 content and glucose transport in isolated muscle membranes (GT) from horses before and 2 min after standardised submaximal exercise tests (SET) prior to and after completion of 6 weeks of training. Seven horses, age 3-9 years, body mass mean +/- s.e. 530 +/- 19 kg, and sedentary for at least 4 months, completed 6 weeks of training on a treadmill. An initial SET (UT) was performed on a 4 degree incline at a speed equivalent to 55% of pretraining VO2max and was repeated post-training at the same absolute workload (ABS). A third SET (REL) was p...
Inhibition of articular cartilage degradation by glucosamine-HCl and chondroitin sulphate. Glucosamine and chondroitin sulphate in many animal and human trials has improved joint health. In vitro studies are beginning to clarify their mode of action. The objective of this research was to: 1) determine at what concentrations glucosamine-HCl (GLN) and/or chondroitin sulphate (CS) would inhibit the cytokine-induced catabolic response in equine articular cartilage explants and 2) to determine if a combination of the 2 was more effective at inhibiting the catabolic response than the individual compounds. Articular cartilage was obtained from carpal joints of horses (age 1-4 years). Carti...
Potassium and lactate uptake by noncontracting tissue during strenuous exercise. Efflux of potassium (K+) and lactate (lac-) from active skeletal muscle during high intensity exercise leads to increased plasma [K+] and [lac-] in venous and arterial blood. The exercise-induced increases in these ions in human athletes is ameliorated, in part, by uptake by noncontracting tissue, reflected by an increase in the arteriovenous difference across these tissues from rest to exercise. To test the hypothesis that these ions are taken up by noncontracting tissue in strenuously exercising horses, plasma [K+] and [lac-] were measured in blood samples collected simultaneously from the c...
Effect of dietary lipid on response to exercise: relationship to metabolic adaptation. The aim of the present study was to relate changes in muscle oxidative capacity and free fatty acid flux in response to oil supplementation to fuel utilisation during subsequent exercise of varying intensities. Following 10 weeks of oil supplementation there was an increased capacity for fat utilisation during low and moderate intensity exercise as indicated by a lower respiratory exchange ratio (RER) (P<0.05). We suggest that this was contributed to by a parallel increase in the oxidative capacity of muscle as indicated by a significant increase in the activity of muscle citrate synthase (...
Effects on exercise metabolism of varying dietary starch and sugar proportions. Studies of the effect of varying dietary carbohydrate compositions on exercise metabolism of horses are scarce. In the present study, the starch and sugar proportions were altered in the diet to 4 Standardbred horses. In a crossover experiment, the horses were offered a hay and oat diet, where the oats were substituted for barley syrup (BS) at 4 levels (BS 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 kg). Each diet was consumed for 21 days and both an incremental treadmill exercise test (IE) and a 40 min submaximal exercise test (SE) were performed. During the IE there was a significant (P<0.05) increase in mean VO...
Antioxidant status and muscle cell leakage during endurance exercise. Antioxidant status of 35 endurance horses was studied during an 80 (OD80) or 160 km (OD160) race. Packed cell volume (PCV), total plasma protein (TPP), plasma ascorbic acid (VIT C), plasma alpha-tocopherol (VIT E) and erythrocyte glutathione (GSH) concentrations, erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase (GPX), plasma aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and plasma creatine kinase (CK) activities were measured at 0, 40, 80 km and 60 min of recovery (REC) at OD80, and 0, 64, 106, 142, 160 km and REC at OD160. In both races, no changes were found in plasma VIT E concentration, but VIT C and GSH concentrati...
Effect of dorsal displacement of the soft palate on ventilation and airflow during high-intensity exercise. Dorsal displacement of the soft palate (DDSP) is one of the most common obstructive conditions of the upper respiratory tract in the racehorse. The present study was conducted to determine the effects of intermittent dorsal displacement of the soft palate (DDSP) on ventilation and respiratory airflow during high intensity exercise. Videoendoscopic recordings were made of the nasopharynx and larynx simultaneously with measurements of airflow and respiratory gas exchange, during high-speed treadmill exercise in 9 horses with confirmed intermittent DDSP admitted for clinical investigation of poor...
Effect of glucosamine on interleukin-1-conditioned articular cartilage. Glucosamine inhibits recombinant human interleukin-1 stimulated cartilage degradation in equine cartilage explants. Recently, recombinant equine interleukin-1 has been cloned and purified. Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterise the effects of glucosamine on indices of cartilage degradation in recombinant equine IL-1beta-stimulated equine articular cartilage explants. Cartilage discs were harvested from the weight-bearing region of the articular surface of the antebrachiocarpal and middle carpal joints of horses (age 2-8 years) and cultured under standard conditions. Explant...
Oral L-carnitine combined with training promotes changes in skeletal muscle. The purpose of this study was to determine whether oral L-carnitine supplementation enhances the responses of skeletal muscle to training in seven 2-year-old Standardbreds. Four horses were supplemented with 10 g/day L-carnitine for 10 weeks and 3 horses served as controls. All horses were exercised regularly every second day on a treadmill for 5 weeks (training period) and housed in individual boxes for 5 additional weeks (detraining period). The training period consisted of 8 high- and 8 low-speed exercises carried out in alternating sequence. Gluteus medius muscle biopsies were taken at Wee...
Airway cooling and mucosal injury during cold weather exercise. In human subjects that exercise strenuously in cold weather, there is evidence that hyperventilation with cold air leads to peripheral airway cooling, desiccation and mucosal injury. Our hypothesis was that hyperventilation with cold air can result in penetration of unconditioned air (air that is not completely warmed and humidified) into the peripheral airways of exercising horses, resulting in peripheral airway mucosal injury. To test this hypothesis, a thermister-tipped catheter was inserted through the midcervical trachea and advanced into a sublobar bronchus in three horses that cantered ...
Exercise-induced tendon hypertrophy: cross-sectional area changes during growth are influenced by exercise. Most skeletal tissues are thought to adapt to the mechanical environment they experience. While this has been demonstrated for muscle and bone, previous studies in the mature horse have failed to demonstrate adaptation in the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), which suffers a high frequency of injury. This study tested the hypothesis that imposed exercise during growth would result in an increase in SDFT cross-sectional area (CSA). Fourteen Thoroughbred foals were divided into 2 sex-matched groups. A control group received 4 h pasture exercise and an exercise group had the same amount o...
Thermoregulatory-induced compromise of muscle blood flow in ponies during intense exercise in the heat: a contributor to the onset of fatigue? Cardiac output (Q) and tissue blood flows (BF) were measured in four ponies at rest, after 30 min of moderate exercise (ME) (approximately 30% VO2max) and following moderately intense exercise (M-IE) (approximately 65%) until fatigue, in a mildly hot (MH) environment (dry bulb temperature = 41 degrees C, wet bulb temperature = 27.5 degrees C). Exercise at both intensities resulted in increases in Q (15.6 +/- 1.7 [rest] vs. 35.8 +/- 2.6 [ME] vs. 48.6 +/- 3.9 [M-IE] l/min) and VO2 (4.7 +/- 0.9 vs. 24.5 +/- 1.2 vs. 55.8 +/- 5.8 ml/kg/min). When compared to ME, M-IE resulted in decreases in BF to ...
Benefits of moderate training to the nonspecific immune response of colts. The aim of this work was to assess whether progressive training caused an improvement in the nonspecific immune response of colts because several unusual infections are due to defects inherent in the neutrophilic function among which respiratory diseases are a major defect in the performance of athletes taking part in professional sports activities. A group of 7 Anglo-Arabian colts belonging to the Army was selected. These animals carry out training programmes for their participation in National Jumping Competitions. During a submaximal exercise test (heart rate 150 beats/min and lactate level...
Heart rate and blood lactate responses during exercise in preparation for eventing competition. The aim of this study was to investigate the heart rate and blood lactate responses to exercise in event horses in normal training, and to compare them to those encountered in eventing competition. It was hypothesised that the responses during exercise in the course of training for CCI*** events would be significantly different from those of the Cross-Country day. Heart rates and blood lactate concentrations were measured in 13 elite event horses after intense exercise sessions conducted during the late stages of preparation for CCI*** or CCI**** 3-day-event competition. Mean +/- s.d. heart ra...
The effect of reins on kinetic variables of locomotion. The equestrian literature and reports of experienced riders indicated that attitude of a horse's head and neck is related to the equine locomotion characteristics. The purpose of this study was to quantify the effects of 3 types of reins on locomotion at walk and trot. Eight saddle horses were tested in an automatic walker without reins, with rubber bands, Chambons and Back lift, using the same procedure. The rubber bands closed the head-neck angle, whereas the Chambons and the Back lift opened it. The gait characteristics were measured with the Equimetrix gait analysis system. Two acceleromet...
Heart size estimated by echocardiography correlates with maximal oxygen uptake. Maximum oxygen uptake also appears to correlate to athletic performance in horses. In the Thoroughbred industry, there has long been an empirical theory that heart size is related to athletic performance, despite a lack of scientific evidence supporting this assertion. To investigate the relationship between peak oxygen consumption (VO2max) and cardiac size measured by echocardiography, guided M-mode and 2-dimensional echocardiography were performed in 17 conditioned Thoroughbreds with a range of VO2max from 126 to 217 ml/min/kg STPD (mean +/- s.d. 158 +/- 28 m/min/kg). Horses were age 2-10 ye...
The effect of treadmill incline on maximal oxygen uptake, gas exchange and the metabolic response to exercise in the horse. In healthy man, conditions that change muscle O2 delivery affect the achievable maximum rate of O2 uptake as well as the metabolic (e.g. lactate threshold, LT) and gas exchange (e.g. gas exchange threshold, Tge) responses to incremental exercise. Inclined (I) compared to level (L) running increases locomotory muscle EMG at a given speed in the horse, indicative of elevated metabolic demand. To our knowledge, the effect of treadmill incline on VO2,max, LT and Tge has not been addressed in the exercising quadruped. We used blood sampling and breath-by-breath expired gas analysis to test the hypo...
Effect of growth and training on muscle adaptation in Thoroughbred horses. To determine the effect of growth and training on metabolic properties in muscle fibers of the gluteus medius muscle in adolescent Thoroughbred horses. Methods: Twenty 2-year-old Thoroughbreds. Methods: Horses were randomly assigned to 2 groups. Horses in the training group were trained for 16 weeks, and control horses were kept on pasture without training. Samples were obtained by use of a needle-biopsy technique from the middle gluteus muscle of each horse before and after the training period. Composition and oxidative enzyme (succinic dehydrogenase [SDHI) activity of each fiber type were de...
