Equids are members of the family Equidae, which includes modern horses, donkeys, and zebras, as well as extinct species. Equids are characterized by their long limbs, single-toed hooves, and herbivorous diet, which is primarily composed of grasses. Horses, specifically, have been domesticated for thousands of years and have played significant roles in agriculture, transportation, and sport. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of equids and horses, including their evolution, physiology, behavior, and interactions with humans. The collected works provide insights into the genetic diversity, adaptive traits, and conservation efforts related to equid species.
van Rijn PA, Wernery U, Feddema AJ, Maris-Veldhuis MA, Joseph S, van Gennip RGP.African Horse Sickness (AHS) is a devastating vector-borne viral disease of equids with a mortality up to 95 % in naïve domestic horses. The causative African horse sickness virus (AHSV) is a distinct species of the genus Orbivirus of the family Sedoreoviridae, consisting of nine serotypes showing limited cross protection. AHSV is transmitted by Culicoides biting midges. Outbreaks cause huge economic losses in developing African countries. AHS has become a serious threat for countries outside Africa, since endemic Culicoides species in moderate climates appear competent vectors of the closel...
Vidal-Cardos R, Fàbrega E, Dalmau A.The sustainability of extensive livestock systems is compromised. It is necessary to enhance our understanding of the activity and grazing behavior of different livestock species (cows, horses, and sheep) sharing the same mountainous areas. Nowadays, the observation and analysis of animal activity is greatly facilitated by remote tracking technology, especially in zones with difficult access. In this article, we proved that commercial geolocation collars can provide meaningful data on animal activity, behavior, and distribution, which can be used to model daily distances, activity patterns, gr...
Yang S, Xiao J, Mu L, Li C, Dai S, Li S, Cui Y, Xu Y.Between the third and sixth centuries AD (Anno Domini), the Xianbei emerged as a dominant nomadic power in the Eastern Eurasian Steppe, distinguished by their exceptional equestrian culture and the pivotal role of cavalry in warfare. Despite their historical significance, detailed knowledge of their cavalry's weaponry and equipment-particularly armour-remains fragmentary. As a critical element of military technology, armour offers valuable insights into ancient combat strategies and cultural practices. However, research on early Chinese cavalry armour has been constrained by limited textual re...
Huisman I, Groenestein CM, Vellinga TV, Pishgar-Komleh SH.Sustainability is gaining growing attention within the equine sector. Sustainability consists of various subjects including feed and nutrition, resource efficiency, animal welfare, carbon footprint (CFP) and biodiversity, for example. Studies in horse research focus mainly on behaviour and welfare. Little information is available about the environmental impact of equids. The few studies that can be found are principally concerned with local impact, such as nitrogen leaching or ammonia concentrations in bedding. Little is known about greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) for horses, although GHG emiss...
Stasiak K, Dunowska M, Rola J.Equid herpesvirus 5 (EHV-5) comprises a group of heterogeneous viruses with a worldwide distribution. Primary infection typically occurs early in life, which is followed by latency and periodic recrudescence of the virus. The aim of this study was to determine the genetic variation of EHV-5 in individual animals over time and to determine the dynamics of EHV-5 spread among selected mare-foal pairs at three horse studs. The partial glycoprotein B () gene was amplified from archival nasal swab samples. Sequences from 3-5 clones from each PCR product were compared using identity matrix, phylogeny...
Krcal C, Licka T.Besides oral temperature, meteorological parameters are expected to be relevant for mouthpiece temperature, potentially influenced by the material, surface area and weight of the bit. This study measured the temperature of the mouthpieces at the corner of the mouth while they were in use on 58 carriage horses during the four 2024 seasons. Stainless steel, copper, and copper-steel bits were tested in three shapes: Butterfly Liverpool, Liverpool, and Loose Ring Snaffle with four rings. Additionally, surface temperatures of inner thighs, the ground, and buildings were measured using infrared ther...
Couto GR, Vigano DWA, Santos GDC, Allen WRT, Wilsher S.Vitrified embryos ≤300 μm give better pregnancy rates following warming and transfer than larger ones. Embryo recovery undertaken close to when the embryo enters the uterus (Day 6-6.5) helps in the recovery of embryos ≤300 μm. However, flushing early can mean missing an embryo not yet in the uterus, whereas later can result in embryos >300 μm. Objective: To evaluate if repeated embryo flushing on consecutive days from Day 6.5 would increase the number of embryos ≤300μm recovered. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Four hundred and ninety-six inseminations with cooled ...
Kronenberg PA, Fouché N, Sekiya M, Liechti P, Frey CF, Mulcahy G, Eichenberger RM.Fasciola hepatica is a common trematode parasite of livestock in many regions, causing significant economic losses and affecting animal welfare. Horses rarely develop patent liver fluke infection. However, liver damage can affect animal health and welfare. Therefore, F. hepatica infection in horses may be underreported. Recently, a serological test for the antibody detection has been reported based on recombinant parasite cathepsin L1 (FhCL1) protease. Here, we optimized this enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for antibody-detection in horses with equine fasciolosis based on recombinant...
Payette F, Kulp JC, Graves A, Janes J, Morrow J, Orr K, Reed S, Ruby R, Stefanovski D, Johnson AL.To measure and compare CSF cytokine concentrations among horses with equine neuroaxonal dystrophy (eNAD)/equine degenerative myeloencephalopathy (EDM), horses with cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM), and control horses and to evaluate for associations with clinical parameters. Unassigned: Banked equine CSF samples from horses with neurologic disease that underwent a complete neurologic examination and postmortem diagnosis confirmation of CVSM or eNAD/EDM or from control horses were included. Cytokines were measured with an equine-specific cytokine/chemokine magnetic bead multiplex p...
Silva VVD, Leite DPSBM, Gonçalves LMT, Pinto GOA, Oliveira PRF, Mota RA.Rabies is a lethal zoonosis caused by the rabies virus (RABV), primarily transmitted by the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus). Brazil, home to the largest equine population in South America, faces ongoing challenges with equine rabies, which impacts both the economy and public health. This study aimed to identify spatial and temporal patterns of rabies in equines in Brazil between 2006 and 2023. Data from the Zoosanitary Information System (SIZ) of the Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Food Supply (MAPA) were used. The incidence risk (IR) was calculated for each region and...
Wottlin LR, Anderson RC, Bhatta R, Leatherwood J, Olson EG, Callaway TR, Ricke SC.Environmental impacts of animal agriculture are under intense scrutiny, thus strategies to decrease greenhouse gas emissions and volatile nitrogen waste are valuable. As dietary inclusion of tannins has been shown to decrease methanogenesis and improve nitrogen retention in ruminants, this study was designed to determine the effects of graded levels of hydrolysable tannin (chestnut) and condensed tannin (mimosa) on equine in vitro cecal fermentation. Methods: Two in vitro experiments were conducted, each with three replications per treatment. Treatments were 0.2 g alfalfa without or with 5, 1...
Fonseca-Rodríguez O, Pailler-García L, Urban A, Cáceres G, Napp S, Busquets N.West Nile virus (WNV) is an arthropod-borne virus primarily transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, among birds, but occasionally infecting humans and equids. Understanding environmental factors on the disease occurrence is crucial for planning effective prevention and control strategies. Our study estimates the short-term effects of ambient temperature, relative humidity and precipitation on weekly cases of WNV in equids in Spain, using a space-time stratified case-crossover design. Because WNV transmission occurs sometime after the weather conditions become favorable for the vector, we aimed to est...
Kong FKW, Wong ASY, Cheung RKK, Wan TSM, Ho ENM.In order to control the potential misuse of perfluorocarbons as an oxygen carrier in equine sports, a simple and sensitive method for detecting perfluorocarbons in equine plasma by gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry using negative chemical ionization with methane as reagent gas has been developed and fully validated. The method covers seven perfluorocarbons, which are the active components in blood substitute products, and shows good sensitivity and robustness. Limits of detection as low as 0.01 ng/mL could be achieved by the method. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first r...
Octaviano JI, Alonso MA, Boakari YL, Gomes V, Mori CS, Fleury PDC, Fernandes CB.Monitoring equine parturition effectively is essential for preemptive intervention in periparturient issues and ensuring the overall well-being of both mares and foals. However, its implementation in breeding farms is challenging due to variable gestational lengths and nocturnal births. Predictive techniques have the potential to streamline the monitoring process, reduce labor intensity, and minimize costs. Research on foaling prediction in mares carrying mule or equine clone fetuses is scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to comparatively analyze foaling prediction parameters in mares pregnant...
Griffin RA, Miller K, Colyvas K, Sheridan A, De Iuliis G, Aitken RJ, Baker MA, Gibb Z, Swegen A.Exposure to systemic heat stress in male mammals adversely affects sperm production, fertility, and DNA integrity. To date, few studies have investigated this phenomenon in horses, particularly in industry-relevant environments. Therefore, this study examined the relationship between ambient climatic conditions and fertility within a population of commercially fertile stallions. Post-coital semen samples ( = 804) were collected weekly from 46 Thoroughbred stallions during two successive breeding seasons (NSW, Australia; 22 weeks total). Semen samples were processed via single-layer colloid...
de la Fuente A, Scoggin C, Bradecamp E, Martin-Pelaez S, van Heule M, Troedsson M, Daels P, Meyers S, Dini P.Maturation is a critical step in the development of an oocyte, and it is during this time that the oocyte advances to metaphase II (MII) of the meiotic cycle and acquires developmental competence to be fertilized and become an embryo. However, in vitro maturation (IVM) remains one of the limiting steps in the in vitro production of embryos (IVP), with a variable percentage of oocytes reaching the MII stage and unpredictable levels of developmental competence. Understanding the dynamics of oocyte maturation is essential for the optimization of IVM culture conditions and subsequent IVP outcomes....
Lefèvre RA, Barluet de Beauchesne L, Sabarros F, Briefer Freymond S, Ramseyer A, Keller M, Reby D, Fitch WT, Briefer ÉF.Understanding why the frequencies of some species' vocalizations are far above or below those predicted by body size is key for explaining the remarkable diversity of mammalian vocal behavior. Horses, among the largest terrestrial mammals, provide a clear example of such deviation: their whinnies contain a very high fundamental frequency (>1,000 Hz) in addition to a second, lower one (∼200 Hz). While the lower fundamental frequency of whinnies is readily attributed to vocal fold (laryngeal) vibrations, the biomechanical processes underlying the production of the higher one remain unknown. Us...
Nelson BB, Easley JT.Equine neurosurgery is a challenge for many surgeons, particularly when central nervous system (CNS) disease is not addressed through ventral cervical stabilization, the most performed neurosurgical procedure. Advances in diagnostic imaging, minimally invasive instrumentation, and computer-assisted surgery are expanding therapeutic possibilities beyond cervical vertebral compressive myelopathy, including radiculopathy, vertebral fractures, and intracranial or intraspinal masses. Emerging techniques-such as percutaneous foraminotomy, facet fixation, targeted decompression, novel implant systems...
El Brini Z, Mhar I, Bouktaib FE, Piro M, Daniel C, Alyakine H.Working equids are at high risk of musculoskeletal disorders due to strenuous labor, repetitive tasks, and harsh environmental conditions. This retrospective study describes the distribution of radiographically detected musculoskeletal findings in working equids presented to four Society for the Protection of Animals Abroad (SPANA) centers in Morocco, based on 498 animals and 1125 radiographs collected between 2015 and 2022. The study population was mainly composed of horses (78.1%), followed by donkeys (15.3%) and mules (6.6%). Most were males (65.7%), and the majority were between 5 and 15 y...
Pettersson J, Levanov L, Tervo S, Hautala K, Aaltonen K, Utriainen M, Kareinen L, Gadd T, Sironen T, Vapalahti O, Kinnunen PM.Parapoxviruses (PPV) cause skin and mucous membrane signs to several animal species and humans worldwide. Equine parapoxvirus (EqPPV) was first detected in a sick horse in Finland in 2013. It is potentially zoonotic, and a similar virus has been detected in humans in the USA. In winter 2021–2022, EqPPV caused a large-scale pastern dermatitis epidemic in racehorses all over Finland. Field reports suggest that similar epidemics of unverified cause have also occurred in 2015 and 2019. The aim of this study was to develop a serological test and study the immune response, seroprevalence, and hist...
Goodchild OA, Rosen SN, Mennecart B, Meng J, Tissier J.Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates, are represented today by 16 species of rhinoceroses, tapirs, and horses. Perissodactyls were much more diverse in the past, having a rich fossil record spanning from the earliest Eocene (~56 Ma) to recent, including a myriad of extinct lineages. Despite over a century of study, the inter-relationships of some extinct perissodactyl families remain poorly resolved. New morphological characters are needed to help solve this issue. Recent studies suggest that the ear region, ., the petrosal and the bony labyrinth of the inner ear, is a valuable source of morp...
Qiu Y, Lei Y, Yi X, Tang X, Zhang B, Wang S, Sun X.This study investigated three donkey breeds-Guanzhong, Jiami, and Northern Shaanxi-to characterize the structural organization and diversification mechanisms of the immunoglobulin light-chain (IgL) loci and to conduct both intra-breed and interspecies comparisons with horses. The donkey IGλ locus is located on chromosome 8 and arranged in a Vλ-(Jλ-Cλ)-Vλ configuration. It contains 7 Cλ genes, each preceded by a corresponding Jλ gene to form a Jλ-Cλ cluster. Upstream of this cluster, 156 Vλ genes were identified, including 29 potential functional genes; downstream, 98 Vλ genes were d...
Ramírez-Juidias E, Díaz de la Serna-Moreno Á, Delgado-Pertíñez M.Rangeland degradation poses a serious challenge for the sustainable management of free-ranging livestock in Mediterranean wetlands. In National Park, Spain, the endangered horse depends exclusively on natural forage, making it essential to monitor vegetation productivity and grazing suitability under increasing climate variability. This study presents a satellite-based assessment of rangeland carrying capacity to support the adaptive management of this iconic breed. A six-year time series (2015-2020) of 1242 images from Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS and Sentinel-2 (L1C/L2A) was processed using ILWIS an...
Mules (Equus mulus), as sterile hybrids between mares and donkeys, present a unique uterine morphology and physiology that remains poorly characterized. This study provides the first histomorphometric evaluation and transcriptional profiling of the endometrium in adult mules. To achieve this, endometrial biopsies were analysed using quantitative stereology, histological classification (Kenney-Doig system), and qPCR of key immune-related and fibrotic genes. Histometric analyses revealed that the stratum spongiosum was the predominant component of the mule endometrium (mean volume density: 84.7...
De Ridder T, Aerts P, MacLaren JA.Equid evolution is characterized by a high diversity of extinct species and morphologies, whereas extant equids share a superficially similar, monodactyl morphology. This inferred musculoskeletal similarity of modern equid limbs remains unexplored, and it is often assumed that domestic horse limbs are representative for wild equids (e.g., zebras, onagers, etc.). Our aim was to quantitatively describe the muscle architecture and arrangement of all forelimb muscles in extant wild Equus species to test this assumption, and investigate any differences between the species. We hypothesized that ther...
Harel B, Sévin C, Le Hello S, Moreau P, Giard JC, Petry S, Gravey F.Enterobacteriaceae are opportunistic pathogens responsible for local or systemic infections in both human and veterinary medicine. To monitor circulating strains in stud farms in Normandy (France), we investigated a collection of Enterobacteriaceae isolated from necropsied equids performed in the region between 1997 and 2020. These strains were initially identified using MALDI-TOF; however, as this method failed to identify some isolates, whole genome sequencing followed by rMLST analysis was subsequently performed. Different genera were identified: Enterobacter spp., Huaxiibacter spp., Lellio...
Zhang Y, Zheng J, Zhang H, Lin Y, Wang Y, Ma Z, Wei J, Zhou B, Zhong D.Getah virus (GETV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), West Nile virus (WNV), and African horse sickness virus (AHSV) are mosquito-borne viruses threatening the health of racehorses. However, the systematic surveillance of these viruses among Shanghai racehorses remains lacking. Therefore, molecular and serological surveillance was conducted for these viruses in racehorses and mosquitoes at horse farms in Shanghai, China, during 2022 to assess their prevalence. Among 11,140 mosquitoes collected from seven farms across four districts, and were identified as the dominant species. RT-qPCR detec...
Koshy SA, Ajeebsanu MM, Karakka Kal AK, Subhahar MB, Karatt TK, Philip M.Effective pain management remains a persistent challenge, with opioids limited by tolerance, dependence, respiratory depression, and misuse. This has created demand for safer, nonaddictive alternatives. Suzetrigine (VX-548, Journavx) is a novel analgesic with promising efficacy, but its potential misuse in competitive racing requires investigation. Limited information is available on its metabolism and detection, emphasizing the need for metabolic characterization to aid antidoping strategies. Methods: In vitro metabolism of suzetrigine was evaluated using equine liver microsomes and homogeniz...
Djellouli M, Eddaikra N, Beneldjouzi A, Benikhlef R, Ghimire R, Wilkins M, Lafri I.Cutaneous leishmaniosis remains a major public health concern in Algeria, predominantly affecting humans and dogs. However, the role of other animal hosts, particularly equids, in the transmission cycle remains underexplored. This cross-sectional study presents the first systematic investigation of Leishmania spp. exposure and infection in equids, along with associated environmental and host factors, from southeastern Algeria, El Oued Wilaya, the third most affected region for human cutaneous leishmaniasis in the country. A total of 122 equids from eight communes were clinically examined and t...
