The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Ursini TL, Clayton HM, Levine D, Richards J.To measure intersegmental movement in the sagittal, dorsal, and transverse planes of the cranial thoracic to caudal thoracic, caudal thoracic to lumbar, and lumbar to sacral segments using range of motion and angular velocity as measures of quality of movement. Unassigned: 6-degrees-of-freedom spinal motion was measured at the walk and trot in 3 sound Thoroughbred and Thoroughbred cross horses, and the data were pooled, giving a total of 54 gait cycles at walk and 33 at trot. These were compared against 8 cycles at walk and 13 at trot from 1 Thoroughbred horse that was confirmed as having mode...
Choi Y, Rosanowski SM, Parkin TD.To identify risk factors associated with complete humerus fractures in Thoroughbreds in South Korea. Unassigned: A retrospective case-control design with multivariable logistic regression was used. This study included 131 Thoroughbreds diagnosed with complete humerus fractures following racetrack activity between 2009 and 2022 (inclusive). Additionally, 660 healthy Thoroughbreds (699 observations) with at least 1 racetrack activity during the same period were included as controls. Unassigned: A total of 8 variables were associated with the risk of complete humerus fractures. Notably, horses wi...
Korac L, St George L, MacNicol J, McCrae P, Jung L, Golestani N, Karrow N, Cánovas A, Pearson W.Low-dose intra-articular injection of recombinant equine interleukin-1β (reIL-1β) may offer a useful model for studying early onset or subclinical joint inflammation in horses. This pilot study aimed to determine the lowest intra-articular dose of reIL-1β required to produce biochemical evidence of synovitis, and to correlate synovitis biomarkers with functional, upper-body asymmetry parameters. Saline (control) and 50, and 75 ng reIL-1β were injected into the left or right intercarpal joint of three ( = 3) horses in a three-way crossover design. Synovial fluid was collected by aseptic art...
Bertuglia A, Cantatore F, Pallante M, Manassero L, Bergamini L, Riccio B, Pagliara E.To report the incidence, and clinical and pathological findings of developmental lateral patellar luxation in Standardbred yearlings diagnosed with femoropatellar dysplasia (FPD) and demonstrate that osteochondral lesions in the lateral trochlear ridge (LTR) of the femur observed in the affected horses are osteochondral lesions related to patellar maltracking.Retrospective case series. Medical records were retrospectively reviewed for Standardbreds <12 months of age diagnosed with FPD between 2017 and 2023.A total of 10 Standardbred yearlings developed FPD (incidence 6.4 cases per 1,000 foals)...
DiBello D, Cassel N, Granacka V, Beard L, Rosado SC, Hill-Thimmesch K, Avellar H.Equine sarcoidosis is an uncommon disease characterized by granulomatous inflammation presenting in a spectrum of body system involvement and severity. Musculoskeletal manifestations are sporadically reported but without correlation between imaging and pathologic findings. In a mature Quarter Horse mare eventually diagnosed with a progressive form of sarcoidosis, phalangeal osteolysis discovered on radiography prompted further evaluation, revealing diffuse, discrete osteolysis throughout the axial skeleton. Due to disease progression, humane euthanasia was elected, and computed tomography and ...
El Brini Z, Mhar I, Bouktaib FE, Piro M, Daniel C, Alyakine H.Working equids are at high risk of musculoskeletal disorders due to strenuous labor, repetitive tasks, and harsh environmental conditions. This retrospective study describes the distribution of radiographically detected musculoskeletal findings in working equids presented to four Society for the Protection of Animals Abroad (SPANA) centers in Morocco, based on 498 animals and 1125 radiographs collected between 2015 and 2022. The study population was mainly composed of horses (78.1%), followed by donkeys (15.3%) and mules (6.6%). Most were males (65.7%), and the majority were between 5 and 15 y...
McCoy AM, Lopp-Schurter CT, Bishop RC, Narotsky A, Grogger K, Kemper AM.To determine the natural progression of tarsal osteochondrosis (OC) in a cohort of Standardbred foals and assess the impact of gait preference (trotting vs. pacing). Methods: Longitudinal observational cohort study. Methods: Client-owned Standardbred foals (n = 148). Methods: Tarsal radiographs were taken every 2 months from 2 to 12 months of age and foals were video monitored to document time spent pacing or trotting. Differences between groups were assessed using χ analysis. Survival analysis was used to determine if lesion healing differed between groups over time. Results: Of 148 ...
Zhang Z, Yang Y, Ma Y, Mai Z, Fu H, Wang X, Cao X, Li T, Li J, Guo Q.With the growing popularity of equestrian sports, the incidence of athletic injuries in horses has also risen. Among these injuries, proximal sesamoid bone fracture (PSBF) and flexor tendinitis are particularly common in the forelimbs of sport horses and represent major causes of musculoskeletal impairment. A 5-year-old horse presented with obvious symptoms such as swelling at the left fetlock joint and metacarpal region after exercise. Through lameness assessment, diagnostic imaging, and hematological testing, the horse was diagnosed with PSBF complicated by flexor tendinitis. The affected ho...
Puccetti M, Beccati F, Pilati N.Femoral nerve neuropathy causes lameness, a condition clinically characterized by stifle's lack of extension with subsequent diminished lower limb function. This case report describes the ultrasonographic diagnosis of femoral neuropathy secondary to compression caused by myopathy of the iliopsoas muscle of an endurance horse during a competition. Transrectal ultrasonography played a pivotal role in diagnosis of the injury by assessment of the involved structures and monitoring of the healing process throughout the recovery period. The horse achieved complete recovery and successfully returned ...
Pécresse B, Moiroud C, Hanne-Poujade S, Hatrisse C, De Azevedo E, Coudry V, Jacquet S, Audigié F, Chateau H.Locomotor disorders involving the spine are a major cause of impaired performance and early retirement in sport horses. Swimming is increasingly incorporated into rehabilitation protocols, but its effects on spinal biomechanics remain poorly understood. This prospective study evaluated changes in thoracolumbar mobility in sixteen sport horses diagnosed with cervical or thoracolumbar axial musculoskeletal lesions over a 12-week rehabilitation program comprising 4 weeks of land-based training followed by 8 weeks during which swimming sessions were incorporated three times per week. Weekly measur...
Gmel AI, Haraldsdóttir EH, Rosa TV, Lamas LP, Neuditschko M, Weishaupt MA.Europe has many horse breeds differing in conformation, gaits and genetics due to diverging breeding goals. Research studies comparing objective gait parameters between different horse breeds are limited and date back a decade. Objective: In this study, objective gait parameters were measured in three European breeds, namely Lusitanos (LUS; n = 52), Franches-Montagnes (FM; n = 311) and Swiss Warmblood (WB; n = 40) using an inertial measurement system (sensors at poll, withers, pelvis and all four canon bones) at walk and trot. Results: At walk and trot, LUS moved significantly slower than WB a...
Jastrzębska E, Dobbek D, Pawłowska A.Back pain in horses is a frequent musculoskeletal issue that affects performance and welfare. Magnetotherapy has been proposed as a complementary, non-invasive treatment to reduce pain and support soft tissue recovery, but studies in horses remain limited. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the effects of low-frequency pulsed magnetic field therapy on horses with hypersensitivity to palpation along the longissimus dorsi muscle. Four recreational horses participated in a 10-session magnetotherapy program, with changes assessed using palpation, neck flexibility tests, heart rate measurements and...
Qiu Z, Wang J, Zhang Y, Liu X, Wei C, Ma T.Musculoskeletal injuries represent a primary cause of suboptimal performance and early retirement in equine athletes. To address this challenge, the veterinary community has long endeavored to develop safer and more effective therapeutic strategies. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT), as a treatment for equine musculoskeletal injuries, has garnered substantial attention among equine veterinarians. Focused on the theme ESWT Therapy for Equine Musculoskeletal Disorders: From biological mechanisms to clinical applications, this article systematically reviews existing literature on the biolo...
Guadalupi M, Girelli CR, Della Tommasa S, Corte FD, Crovace AM, Fanizzi FP, Brehm W, Lacitignola L.Joint and tendon sheath diseases are a major cause of lameness and reduced performance in horses. Synovial fluid composition changes in response to pathological processes and metabolomic profiling offers a promising approach to detect these alterations. While equine joint metabolomics has been explored, little is known about the metabolomic profile of tendon sheaths. This study aimed to characterize and compare the synovial fluid metabolomic profiles of healthy and pathological joints and tendon sheaths in horses using high-resolution H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy, and to identify ...
Sellke L, Ludewig E, Handschuh S, Witter K.In a previous study on hoof biometry, we found that mathematical correction of measuring results from radiographs did not lead to complete correspondence to computed tomography (CT) results. The present study investigates this finding by comparing 13 measures of six cadaveric equine digits collected with the following workflows: radiographs with 1 and 2 m focus-object distance (FOD) (Xray 1 m/2 m), computed tomography images in planes defined based on anatomical landmarks (CTw), simulated radiographs based on the tomography dataset (virtual 120-mm slabs, Xray Sim) and measurements based ...
Leibeck R, Lehman J, Birmingham S.Whole-body vibrational therapy (WBV) is well-studied in people, but there is a paucity of research regarding its effect on horses. It is suggested that the use of WBV in horses increases performance, aids in recovery, and stimulates nerves, bones, and muscles in ways that normal exercise does not. Objective: The purpose of this pilot study was to determine if frequent WBV therapy sessions affect mechanical nociceptive thresholds based on pressure algometry in horses without clinical signs of lameness or back pain. Methods: The mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) were measured for 5 horses...
Hargitaiova K, Maleas G.To describe outcomes following high-metacarpal deep digital flexor tenotomy (DDFT) combined with Steward clog application in horses and ponies with refractory chronic laminitis. Methods: Retrospective observational study. Methods: Client-owned horses and ponies (7 horses, 8 ponies) with severe refractory laminitis. Methods: Medical records (2018-2019) were reviewed. All underwent standing high-metacarpal DDFT tenotomy proximal to the accessory ligament (AL-DDFT) junction, followed by customized Steward clogs application. Preoperative assessment included radiography and venography. Postoperativ...
Malekipour F, Whitton RC, Muir P, Lee PV.Stress fractures are common in racehorses, with the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint being the most frequently affected site as it is subjected to high-magnitude and high-rate cyclic loads during training and racing. These loads lead to repeated compressive stresses, resulting in subchondral bone (SCB) sclerosis, fatigue microcracks, and matrix damage that can progress to parasagittal fractures or palmar osteochondral disease (POD). The present study developed joint-specific 3D FE models and slice-based FE models using standing CT images for three trained racehorses, each presenting distinct SC...
Sohn Y, An SJ, Forbes E, Yoon J, Kim BS, Ryu SH, Lee I.Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is a developmental orthopedic condition in young horses. Exercise and management affect OCD development, but the impact of exercise patterns during the 6-12 months growth period remains unclear. This study examined the association between OCD lesions in Thoroughbred foals and irregular exercise patterns. Forty foals wore halter-mounted Global Positioning System devices that recorded velocity every five seconds during turnout. Foals were routinely turned out for approximately 13 h daily, except on rainy days. Radiographs were taken at six and twelve months of a...
Graide H, Duysens J, Frank T, Mouithys-Mickalad A, Niesten A, Sandersen C, Ceusters J, Serteyn D.Musculoskeletal pathologies present challenges in athletic horses, often leading to functional impairment. The slow or limited regenerative capacity of bone, joint, and tendon/ligament injuries, coupled with the limitations of conventional treatments, highlights the need for innovative therapies such as ortho-biologics and mesenchymal stem/stroma cells. Traditional 2D cell culture systems with fetal bovine serum (FBS) fail to replicate the complexity of the in vivo environment, whereas 3D cultures more accurately mimic native tissue architecture and cell-cell interactions. This study describes...
van den Broek M, Chan ZYS, De Bruyne C, Garcia-Alamo K, Skotarek Loch S, Pfau T.Increased risk of musculoskeletal injury in galloping racehorses has been linked to decreased stride length and reduced speed over consecutive races prior to the injury. As racetrack curvature influences horses' maximal speed, we hypothesized it also affects stride parameters. During training sessions, twenty-eight wagon-pulling Thoroughbred Chuckwagon horses were equipped with Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) loggers, allowing for identification of speed, stride length (SL) and stride frequency (SF), and average speed, SL and SF were calculated for consecutive 100 m sections. Effects...
Honnas DH, Fiske-Jackson AR, Fulkerson CV, Wilhite DR.An injury of a tendon or ligament of the equine foot is frequently a cause of lameness. The optimal radiographic projections delineating the entheses of five commonly injured tendons and ligaments of the foot should be described. Methods: The entheses of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint, the collateral sesamoidean ligaments of the navicular bone, the deep digital flexor tendon, the common digital extensor tendon and the distal sesamoidean impar ligament were isolated from a thoracic foot of three cadavers. Three standard radiographic projections (60-degree, dorsopro...
Stäubli T, Theiss F, Bischofberger A.A total of 48 horses with unilateral (n = 44) or bilateral (n = 4) overstrain-induced complete rupture of the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) in the forelimbs were retrospectively analysed. A telephone questionnaire, carried out an average of 5,9 years post-injury, served as a long-term follow-up in 25 horses. The mortality rate associated with SDF tendonitis was 12,0 % (3/25). Superficial digital flexor tendonitis did not recur in 76,0 % (19/25) of the horses, but at least one subsequent episode occurred in 24,0 % (6/25). The results of this study indicate that it is reasonable...
Jonkhart M, Serra Bragança FM, Smit IH, Brommer H, Suskens JJM.Flexion tests are commonly used in equine locomotion examinations to identify underlying locomotor issues, yet their neuromuscular effects remain poorly understood. Response variability raises concerns about their clinical value in lameness assessments and pre-purchase evaluations. Objective: Primarily, to investigate the effect of full-limb flexion tests on static (flexed position) and dynamic (subsequent trot-up) muscle activity. Secondarily, to assess their effect on locomotion asymmetry during trotting. Methods: In vivo experiments. Methods: Sixteen warmblood horses were randomly assigned ...
De Zani D, Rabbogliatti V, Rabba S, Auletta L, Longo M, Zani DD.Damage to the osteochondral unit is a common cause of lameness in horses. Published descriptions of MRI findings of osteochondral unit and subchondral damage are currently lacking, and only a few reports describe outcomes in sport horses. The aims of this case series retrospective study were to describe different MRI patterns of osteochondral/subchondral pathology in the fetlock joint using low-field MRI and to provide outcome information. A total of 35 sport horses were included. Data regarding detailed clinical history, treatment and outcome were evaluated. MRI identified a total of 39 bone ...
Chapple AR, Daglish J, Stover SM, Slipchenko N, Phillips KL.Stress fracture is an important cause of mortality and morbidity in racing Thoroughbreds. Nuclear scintigraphy is the imaging modality of choice for investigating unlocalised stress-related bone remodelling in horses. Stress fractures of the caudal lumbar vertebral column have been previously described in both racing Quarter horses and racing Thoroughbreds post-mortem. There is a lack of literature describing the imaging appearance of vertebral stress fractures in racehorses ante-mortem. Objective: To describe: (1) ante-mortem scintigraphic appearance of presumed thoracolumbar vertebral stress...
Clark KF, Lemcke RA, Gasiorowski JC, Wagner B.Lyme arthritis, a well-documented subtype of arthritis in humans and dogs, is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and spread primarily through ticks (Ixodes spp.). While Lyme disease in horses is known to cause a variety of clinical signs, its involvement in the development of equine arthritis is controversial. As climate change enables tick populations to expand, more horses could be exposed to B. burgdorferi; therefore, a greater understanding of how Lyme disease affects joints is critical to preserving soundness. Objective: To determine if systemic, naturally occurring Lyme disease had a discern...
Sabzpoosh M, Hoveizi E, Gooraninejad S.This study aimed to extract and isolate endometrial stromal cells from Arabian mares and investigate their growth and differentiation potential. Endometrial biopsies were obtained from three healthy 6-year-old Arabian mares using a standardized, minimally invasive protocol. The isolated cells were characterized using flow cytometry and differentiation analysis. Flow cytometry revealed mesenchymal markers CD90 (95.2%) and CD105 (97.4%) and hematopoietic markers CD34 (1.17%) and CD45 (0.339%). The cells exhibited differentiation potential into adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes. The findi...
McDonald S, Verheyen KLP, Chang YM, Allen SE.Race-related injuries in horse racing, especially those requiring extended recovery, are a welfare concern and threaten the sport's social licence. Previous studies predominantly report on fatalities; however, serious non-fatal musculoskeletal injuries often end horses' racing careers or have a high recurrence risk. No recent studies have described or quantified long-term injuries (LTIs) in racing Thoroughbreds, which is essential to inform targeted risk prevention strategies. Objective: To describe the types, frequencies and incidences of LTIs in British jump racing. Methods: Retrospective co...
Marković L, Vićić I, Lazarević Macanović M, Francuski Andrić J, Kovačević Filipović M, Radaković M.Working horses often develop distinct patterns of joint degeneration, yet research in this population remains limited. This study aimed to characterize degenerative changes in the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints of Serbian Mountain Horses using computed tomography (CT) and to explore their associations with synovial fluid (SF) biomarkers. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted on 32 MCP/MTP joints from eight clinically sound horses. Postmortem, joints underwent CT imaging, and SF samples were analyzed for viscosity, protein content, total nucleated cell count (...
Bi X, Li G, Doty SB, Camacho NP.The orientation of collagen molecules is an important determinant of their functionality in connective tissues. The objective of the current study is to establish a method to determine the alignment of collagen molecules in histological sections of cartilage by polarized Fourier transform infrared imaging spectroscopy (FT-IRIS), a method based on molecular vibrations. Methods: Polarized FT-IRIS data obtained from highly oriented tendon collagen were utilized to calibrate the derived spectral parameters. The ratio of the integrated areas of the collagen amide I/II absorbances was used as an ind...
Eddy AL, Van Hoogmoed LM, Snyder JR.Equine thermography has increased in popularity recently because of improvements in thermal cameras and advances in image-processing software. The basic principle of thermography involves the transformation of surface heat from an object into a pictorial representation. The colour gradients generated reflect differences in the emitted heat. Variations from normal can be used to detect lameness or regions of inflammation in horses. Units can be so sensitive that flexor tendon injuries can be detected before the horse develops clinical lameness. Thermography has been used to evaluate several dif...
Kasashima Y, Takahashi T, Smith RK, Goodship AE, Kuwano A, Ueno T, Hirano S.Overstrain injuries to the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) and suspensory ligament (SI) are among the most common musculoskeletal injuries which contribute to the considerable wastage of racing Thoroughbreds. Many epidemiological studies have demonstrated the prevalence of and risk factors for tendon injury when racing but have not included those injuries sustained during training. However, since tendon injury during training is seen commonly in clinical practice, it is appropriate to determine the overall prevalence of tendon injury sustained during both training and racing. Objectiv...
Minetti AE, ArdigO LP, Reinach E, Saibene F.Three-dimensional motion capture and metabolic assessment were performed on four standardbred horses while walking, trotting and galloping on a motorized treadmill at different speeds. The mechanical work was partitioned into the internal work (W(INT)), due to the speed changes of body segments with respect to the body centre of mass, and the external work (W(EXT)), due to the position and speed changes of the body centre of mass with respect to the environment. The estimated total mechanical work (W(TOT)=W(INT)+W(EXT)) increased with speed, while metabolic work (C) remained rather constant. A...
Wilson AM, McGuigan MP, Su A, van Den Bogert AJ.The muscular work of galloping in horses is halved by storing and returning elastic strain energy in spring-like muscle-tendon units.These make the legs act like a child's pogo stick that is tuned to stretch and recoil at 2.5 strides per second. This mechanism is optimized by unique musculoskeletal adaptations: the digital flexor muscles have extremely short fibres and significant passive properties, whereas the tendons are very long and span several joints. Length change occurs by a stretching of the spring-like digital flexor tendons rather than through energetically expensive length changes...
Patterson-Kane JC, Becker DL, Rich T.The equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is a frequently injured structure that is functionally and clinically equivalent to the human Achilles tendon (AT). Both act as critical energy-storage systems during high-speed locomotion and can accumulate exercise- and age-related microdamage that predisposes to rupture during normal activity. Significant advances in understanding of the biology and pathology of exercise-induced tendon injury have occurred through comparative studies of equine digital tendons with varying functions and injury susceptibilities. Due to the limitations of in-...
Dowling BA, Dart AJ, Hodgson DR, Smith RK.The superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is an elastic structure that during maximal exercise appears to operate close to its functional limits. The biomechanical and biochemical responses to exercise, injury, and healing are still poorly understood but ongoing research is providing valuable new information which is addressed in this review. It appears that the SDFT matures early, after which time it has limited ability to adapt to stress and undergoes progressive degeneration. Focal hypocellularity, collagen fibril degeneration, selective fibril loading and alterations in the noncollageno...
Rossdale PD, Hopes R, Digby NJ, offord K.An epidemiological study of wastage among racehorses was conducted in 1982 and 1983 among six stables, five of which were in Newmarket. The basis of the survey was the inability of horses to take part in cantering exercise as a result of injury or disease. The greatest number of days lost to training was caused by lameness (67.6 per cent) and respiratory problems (20.5 per cent). Conditions of the foot (19 pe cent), muscle (18 per cent), carpus (14 per cent), fetlock joints (14 per cent), tendons (10 per cent) and sore shins (9 per cent) were the major reasons for training days being lost in 1...
Murray RC, Walters JM, Snart H, Dyson SJ, Parkin TD.The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence of illness and lameness at different anatomical sites in registered United Kingdom dressage horses and to identify risk factors for lameness. A questionnaire was sent to all 11,363 registered members of British Dressage in 2005, with one questionnaire assigned per horse. Four multivariable logistic regression models were developed for each section of the questionnaire. A final mixed effects logistic regression model was developed which combined the results from all prior models. Owners reported that 33% of horses had been lame at some time d...
Smith RK, Birch HL, Goodman S, Heinegård D, Goodship AE.Strain-induced tendinopathy is a common injury in both human and equine athletes, with increasing incidence associated with greater involvement in sport and an increasingly aged population. This paper reviews our studies on the abundant non-collagenous protein, cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP), in equine tendons. Its variation between tendon type and site, age and exercise has provided an insight into how age and exercise influence tendon growth and maturation. Tendons can be broadly divided into two types, reflecting their different matrix composition and function: the energy-storin...
Buchner HH, Savelberg HH, Schamhardt HC, Barneveld A.The kinematic patterns of head and trunk were studied in horses during induced supporting limb lameness to understand the mechanisms horses use to compensate for lameness and to evaluate different symmetry indices for their significance as lameness indicators. Using the locomotion analysis system CODA-3 the kinematics of 11 clinically nonlame Dutch Warmblood horses were recorded while walking (1.6 m/s) and trotting (3.5 m/s) on a treadmill. A transient lameness model, evoking pressure induced pain on the hoof sole, was used to induce 3 degrees of fore- and hindlimb lameness. Peak vertical disp...
Peffers MJ, Thorpe CT, Collins JA, Eong R, Wei TK, Screen HR, Clegg PD.Energy storing tendons, such as the human Achilles and equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), are highly prone to injury, the incidence of which increases with aging. The cellular and molecular mechanisms that result in increased injury in aged tendons are not well established but are thought to result in altered matrix turnover. However, little attempt has been made to fully characterize the tendon proteome nor determine how the abundance of specific tendon proteins changes with aging and/or injury. The aim of this study was, therefore, to assess the protein profile of normal SDFTs ...
Brosnahan MM, Paradis MR.To describe the demographic and clinical characteristics of a population of geriatric horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: 467 horses that were > or = 20 years of age. Methods: Medical records of 539 geriatric horses that were evaluated at a university large animal hospital between 1989 and 1999 were reviewed. Data collected included signalment, reason for evaluation, specific diagnoses, surgical procedures, inpatient or outpatient care, duration of hospitalization, and outcome. Results: 467 horses met the criteria for inclusion in the study. Horses that were > or = 20 years of age c...
Marędziak M, Marycz K, Lewandowski D, Siudzińska A, Śmieszek A.The aim of this work study was to evaluate the cytophysiological activity of equine adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) cultured under conditions of static magnetic field. Investigated cells were exposed to a static magnetic field (MF) with the intensity of 0.5 T. In order to investigate the effects of magnetic field on stem cell signaling, the localization and density and content of microvesicles (MVs) as well as morphology, ultrastructure, and proliferation rate of equine ASCs were evaluated. Results showed that potential of equine adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells was accelerated when ma...
Mansfield J, Yu J, Attenburrow D, Moger J, Tirlapur U, Urban J, Cui Z, Winlove P.A combination of two-photon fluorescence (TPF), second harmonic generation (SHG) and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS) imaging has been used to investigate the elastin fibre network in healthy equine articular cartilage from the metacarpophalangeal joint. The elastin fibres were identified using their intrinsic two-photon fluorescence and immuno-staining was used to confirm the identity of these fibres. SHG was used to reveal the collagen matrix and the collagen fibre orientations were determined from their SHG polarization sensitivity, while CARS was used to clearly delineate the c...
Thorpe CT, Klemt C, Riley GP, Birch HL, Clegg PD, Screen HR.The predominant function of tendons is to position the limb during locomotion. Specific tendons also act as energy stores. Energy-storing (ES) tendons are prone to injury, the incidence of which increases with age. This is likely related to their function; ES tendons are exposed to higher strains and require a greater ability to recoil than positional tendons. The specialized properties of ES tendons are thought to be achieved through structural and compositional differences. However, little is known about structure-function relationships in tendons. This study uses fascicles from the equine s...
Dempsey JA.In summary, we have shown that the design of the pulmonary system from the architectural capacities of the lung parenchyma and respiratory muscles to the remarkable, multi-level neural integration of breathing pattern and respiratory muscle recruitment is clearly intended for the exercising state. Furthermore, the system shows remarkable capability for true adaptation, both phylogenetically and even within only a few generations within a species, when preservation of the organism's ability to survive and function is at stake. At the same time there are limits to the system's homeostatic capabi...
Bosch S, Serra Bragança F, Marin-Perianu M, Marin-Perianu R, van der Zwaag BJ, Voskamp J, Back W, van Weeren R, Havinga P.In this paper, we describe and validate the EquiMoves system, which aims to support equine veterinarians in assessing lameness and gait performance in horses. The system works by capturing horse motion from up to eight synchronized wireless inertial measurement units. It can be used in various equine gait modes, and analyzes both upper-body and limb movements. The validation against an optical motion capture system is based on a Bland-Altman analysis that illustrates the agreement between the two systems. The sagittal kinematic results (protraction, retraction, and sagittal range of motion) sh...
Taylor SE, Vaughan-Thomas A, Clements DN, Pinchbeck G, Macrory LC, Smith RK, Clegg PD.There is a paucity of data regarding molecular markers that identify the phenotype of the tendon cell. This study aims to quantify gene expression markers that distinguish between tendon fibroblasts and other mesenchymal cells which may be used to investigate tenogenesis. Methods: Expression levels for 12 genes representative of musculoskeletal tissues, including the proposed tendon progenitor marker scleraxis, relative to validated reference genes, were evaluated in matched samples of equine tendon (harvested from the superficial digital flexor tendon), cartilage and bone using quantitative P...
Richardson LE, Dudhia J, Clegg PD, Smith R.Stem cells have evoked considerable excitement in the animal-owning public because of the promise that stem cell technology could deliver tissue regeneration for injuries for which natural repair mechanisms do not deliver functional recovery and for which current therapeutic strategies have minimal effectiveness. This review focuses on the current use of stem cells within veterinary medicine, whose practitioners have used mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), recovered from either bone marrow or adipose tissue, in clinical cases primarily to treat strain-induced tendon injury in the horse. The backgr...
Arnhold SJ, Goletz I, Klein H, Stumpf G, Beluche LA, Rohde C, Addicks K, Litzke LF.To isolate and characterize bone marrow-derived equine mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for possible future therapeutic applications in horses. Methods: Equine MSCs were isolated from bone marrow aspirates obtained from the sternum of 30 donor horses. Methods: Cells were cultured in medium (alpha-minimum essential medium) with a fetal calf serum content of 20%. Equine MSC features were analyzed to determine selfrenewing and differentiation capacity. For potential therapeutic applications, the migratory potential of equine MSCs was determined. An adenoviral vector was used to determine the transdu...
Hitchens PL, Morrice-West AV, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC.Studies of racehorse injury or fatality in various countries have identified common, and in some cases conflicting, risk factors. We conducted a systematic search of the relevant literature published from 1990 to 2017. Peer-reviewed articles were included if they reported the incidence of fatal or catastrophic musculoskeletal injury (CMI) in Thoroughbred flat races (n=21) or risk factors for CMI (n=65). Pooled effect sizes were estimated using the random-effects DerSimonian-Laird model. The pooled incidence of CMI was 1.17 (95% confidence interval 0.90, 1.44) per 1000 race starts. Almost 300 f...
Torricelli P, Fini M, Filardo G, Tschon M, Pischedda M, Pacorini A, Kon E, Giardino R.Tissue repair in musculoskeletal injuries is often a slow and sometimes incomplete process. Regenerative medicine based on the use of growth factors (GFs) and cell therapy is aimed at improving the quality and speed of tendon and ligament healing. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential for the administration of a combination of autologous platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and freshly isolated bone marrow mononucleated cells (BMMNCs) in 13 competition horses affected by overuse musculoskeletal injuries (suspensory ligament desmopathy and superficial flexor tendinopathy) and refractory to ...
Rhodin M, Egenvall A, Haubro Andersen P, Pfau T.Recent studies evaluating horses in training and considered free from lameness by their owners have identified a large proportion of horses with motion asymmetries. However the prevalence, type and magnitude of asymmetries when trotting in a straight line or on the lunge have not been investigated. The aim of this study was to objectively investigate the presence of motion asymmetries in riding horses in training by identifying the side and quantifying the degree and type (impact, pushoff) of forelimb and hind limb asymmetries found during straight line trot and on the lunge. In a cross-sectio...
Rome LC, Sosnicki AA, Goble DO.1. To explore how maximum velocity of shortening (Vmax) of fibres varies within one muscle and how Vmax varies with body size, we measured Vmax of muscle fibres from soleus muscle of a large animal, the horse. 2. Vmax was determined by the slack test on skinned single muscle fibres at 15 degrees C during maximal activation (pCa = 5.2). The fibre type was subsequently determined by a combination of single-cell histochemistry and gel electrophoresis of the myosin light chains. 3. Vmax values for the type I, IIA and IIB muscle fibres were 0.33 +/- 0.04 muscle lengths/s (ML/s) (+/- S.E.M., n = 6),...
Jeffcott LB.The survey comprised 443 horses, referred to the clinical department of the Equine Research Station, with a history of a thoracolumbar (TL) complaint. A wide range of lesions were capable of producing back problems and more than one condition or site of injury was found in 75 animals (17 per cent). There were 103 horses (19.7 per cent) with no evidence of damage to the TL spine or its associated structures. In 66 of these cases, clinical signs were attributed to a variety of hindlimb lamenesses and, in 37, no specific diagnosis could be made. Soft tissue injury was diagnosed in 203 cases (38.8...
Watts AE, Yeager AE, Kopyov OV, Nixon AJ.Tendon injury is a common problem in athletes, with poor tissue regeneration and a high rate of re-injury. Stem cell therapy is an attractive treatment modality as it may induce tissue regeneration rather than tissue repair. Currently, there are no reports on the use of pluripotent cells in a large animal tendon model in vivo. We report the use of intra-lesional injection of male, fetal derived embryonic-like stem cells (fdESC) that express Oct-4, Nanog, SSEA4, Tra 1-60, Tra 1-81 and telomerase. Methods: Tendon injury was induced using a collagenase gel-physical defect model in the mid-metacar...
Reilly SM, McElroy EJ, Biknevicius AR.A reanalysis of locomotor data from functional, energetic, mechanical and ecological perspectives reveals that limb posture has major effects on limb biomechanics, energy-saving mechanisms and the costs of locomotion. Regressions of data coded by posture (crouched vs. erect) reveal nonlinear patterns in metabolic cost, limb muscle mass, effective mechanical advantage, and stride characteristics. In small crouched animals energy savings from spring and pendular mechanisms are inconsequential and thus the metabolic cost of locomotion is driven by muscle activation costs. Stride frequency appears...
Abrahams M.The mechanical behaviour of horse and human tendon, as characterised by the stress-strain curve, has been examined with respect to load-strain cycling and strain rate. It was found that the tendon stress-strain curve for successive cycles was reporducible provided that strain on the specimen did not exceed 2·0–4·0%. If this strain level was exceeded, a permanent deformation occurred. This phenomenon was verified by histological studies on strained tendon which showed that some of the collagen fibres did not return to their original orientation. Variation in the rate of strain was found to ...
