The topic of Public Health and horses encompasses the study of interactions between equine populations and human health systems. It involves examining the transmission of zoonotic diseases, which are diseases that can be transferred between animals and humans, as well as the role of horses in the epidemiology of such diseases. This field also considers the impact of equine-related activities on public health, including injuries and environmental effects. Research in this area often explores preventive measures, management strategies, and policies to mitigate health risks associated with horses. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that investigate the intersection of equine and public health, focusing on disease transmission, risk assessment, and health management strategies.
Chae JS, Pusterla N, Johnson E, Derock E, Lawler SP, Madigan JE.We provide evidence of Ehrlichia risticii Holland, the agent of Potomac horse fever, in trematode stages found in aquatic insects collected from a pasture stream in northern California, using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and sequence analyses of the 16S rRNA, 51 kDa major antigen and groEL heat shock protein genes. E. risticii was detected in metacercariae found in the immatures and adults of the following insects: caddisflies (Trichoptera), mayflies (Ephemeroptera), damselflies (Odonata, Zygoptera), dragonflies (Odonata, Anisoptera), and stoneflies (Plecoptera). The pr...
Traub-Dargatz JL, Garber LP, Fedorka-Cray PJ, Ladely S, Ferris KE.To estimate prevalence of fecal shedding of Salmonella spp among horses in the US horse population and prevalence of Salmonella spp in grain or other concentrate used as horse feed on equine operations in the United States. Methods: Cross-sectional survey. Methods: Horses on 972 operations in 28 states. Methods: Fecal samples were collected from horses resident at each operation. Only a single sample was collected from any individual horse; number of horses from which samples were collected on each operation was determined on the basis of number of horses on the operation. A single sample of g...
Weese JS, Staempfli HR, Prescott JF.Although Clostridium difficile is recognized as a cause of enterocolitis in horses and humans, there has been little work published regarding the lability of C. difficile and its toxins in feces. A significant decrease in recovery of C. difficile from inoculated equine fecal samples occurred during storage. Recovery after storage in air at 4 degrees C decreased from 76% (37/49) after 24 hours to 67% (33/49) at 48 hours and 29% (14/ 49) after 72 hours. In contrast to aerobic storage, 25 of 26 samples stored anaerobically at 4 degrees C yielded growth of C. difficile for 30 days, whereas the org...
Racklyeft DJ, Raidal S, Love DN.To review relevant literature on factors associated with the development of equine pleuropneumonia. Methods: A review of the literature using a range of databases including Current Contents, Medline, ChemAbstracts, Biological Abstracts and CAB and a comprehensive search strategy which involved use of keywords, author and subject category searches. Additional sources included review of articles cited by key accumulated references. Results: Since the early years of this century, many of the "gaps" in our knowledge of the pathogenesis of this disease have been filled. We now know that equine pleu...
Del Piero F.Equine viral arteritis (EVA) can cause prominent economic losses for the equine industry. The purpose of this review is to provide the pathologist some familiarity with the clinical history, lesions, pathogenesis, and diagnosis of EVA. EVA is caused by an arterivirus (equine arteritis virus, EAV), and the vascular system is the principal but not unique viral target. EVA has variable presentations, including interstitial pneumonia, panvasculitis with edema, thrombosis and hemorrhage, lymphoid necrosis, renal tubular necrosis, abortion, and inflammation of male accessory genital glands. EAV anti...
Lloyd S, Smith J, Connan RM, Hatcher MA, Hedges TR, Humphrey DJ, Jones AC.One hundred and fifty horse owners, primarily private owners and riding schools, replied to a questionnaire concerning the practices they used to control parasites. Twenty-seven had experienced a parasite problem. Faecal samples from 188 horses selected at random showed that worm control practices were generally successful; however, many owners were not following recommendations for slowing the development of resistant parasites. In 1996, 86 per cent of the owners were using either three or two classes of anthelmintic a year, and they used a median of six doses with a range from one to 11. App...
Kaaden OR, Truyen U.There is a continuous change in viral epidemics with respect to clinical symptoms, their duration or disappearance and the emergence of new diseases. This can be observed both in human and animal diseases. This evolution of virus diseases is mainly related to three factors: etiological agent, host and environment. As far as genetic alterations of the virus are concerned, two major mechanisms are involved: 1) mutations such as recombination and reassortment; 2) selection for resistance or susceptibility. The epidemiology of newly emerged virus diseases in man and animals, such as AIDS and hemor...
Giangaspero A, Lia R, Vovlas N, Otranto D.A survey on the prevalence of Thelazia spp. in the province of Bari (Apulia region, Italy) in slaughtered native horses was conducted from June 20, 1995 to April 3, 1996. Both eyes from 409 ten-month- to 4-year-old native animals were examined. Sixty horses (14.7%) were found parasitized by Thelazia lacrymalis. Three hundred-sixty one parasite specimens (220 females, 99 males and 42 larvae) were collected with a mean count burden of 6.0-5.1 (range 1 to 20) per head. T. lacrymalis specimens were found free in the conjunctiva and behind the nictitancte, in the excretory ducts of the Harderian gl...
Atwill ER, McDougald NK, Perea L.Faecal specimens from 305 horses and mules used as packstock at one of 17 commercial or governmental (National Park Service, US Forest Service) operations were examined for Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium parvum using immunofluorescent microscopy. Fourteen packstock (4.6%) were shedding G. duodenalis cysts, with herd-level prevalences ranging 0-22%. Number of packstock in the corral, size of corral and density of packstock in the corral were associated with the odds of shedding G. duodenalis cysts. None of the horses had detectable C. parvum oocysts. Assuming a sensitivity of at least 4...
Woldemeskel M.A retrospective study of dermatophilosis was made in livestock (cattle, sheep, horses and goats) of Ethiopia under different situations. The disease was reported for the first time in sheep (8.5%), goats (3.14%) and horses (2.84%) from Ethiopia. The occurrence of the disease in cattle was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in wet (6%) than in dry (3.6%) season and in cross (26.9%) than local (3.2%) breeds. The highest prevalence (35%) was noted in cross breeds kept under poor management in the rainy season. The threat of dermatophilosis to animal production in Ethiopia is indicated. Environmen...
Bullock PM, Ames TR, Robinson RA, Greig B, Mellencamp MA, Dumler JS.Equine granulocytic ehrlichiosis (EGE) is caused by infection with Ehrlichia equi. EGE has been reported primarily in northern California, where E equi is transmitted by the tick Ixodes pacificus. Reports of EGE and the emergence of human granulocytic ehrlichia in Minnesota prompted a seroprevalence study of E equi in horses of Minnesota and Wisconsin. Tick (Ixodes scapularis) endemic areas of Minnesota and Wisconsin were compared to nonendemic regions of Minnesota. Indirect fluorescent antibody was used to detect the presence of serum antibodies to E equi. Serum samples from healthy horses, 3...
Kim L, Morley PS, McCluskey BJ, Mumford EL, Swenson SL, Salman MD.To report clinical and serologic findings in horses with oral vesicular lesions that were consistent with vesicular stomatitis (VS) but apparently were not associated with VS virus (VSV) infection. Methods: Serial case study. Methods: 8 horses. Methods: Horses were quarantined after appearance of oral lesions typical of VS. Severity of clinical signs was scored every 2 to 5 days for 3 months. Serum samples were tested for antibodies by use of competitive ELISA (cELISA), capture ELISA for IgM, serum neutralization, and complement fixation (CF). Virus isolation was attempted from swab specimens ...
The Journal of traumaApril 26, 2000
Volume 48, Issue 4 740-744 doi: 10.1097/00005373-200004000-00025
Norwood S, McAuley C, Vallina VL, Fernandez LG, McLarty JW, Goodfried G.Injuries from encounters with large animals represent a significant health risk for rural communities. We evaluated our regional trauma centers' experience with large-animal injuries to determine whether certain mechanisms and patterns of injury predicted either major head/craniofacial or torso (chest/abdomen/pelvis) trauma. Methods: The hospital courses of 145 patients with injuries related to large animals were reviewed retrospectively to determine patterns of injury, specific injury mechanisms, species-specific injuries, and predictors of multiple body region trauma. Results: Seventy-nine p...
Schüle E.Because of the growing interest in animal health and welfare in breeding and sport--specially in the horse--the regulation of the German Riding Association (FN) was updated. The result--the LPO 2000--refer more functions to the veterinarian. At first the permanent presence of the vet is necessary, at second he controls the correct, new installed vaccination against influenza-virus. The functions of vet-check, general horse-control and doping are wide up in number and consultation. For this the veterinarian must decree about much experience and good preparation. The organisations of the veterin...
Lunn DP, Townsend HG.Equine infectious disease remains a constant and important threat to the health of domesticated horses. Vaccination plays a critical role in protecting against such disease, but at the present time the efficacy of some equine vaccination strategies is in doubt. The best strategy for resolving these concerns is an improved knowledge of the immunologic basis of successful vaccination, combined with the appropriate integration of effective vaccines into well-designed disease control policies.
Sweeney CR, Scanlon T, Russell GE, Smith G, Boston RC.To determine application rate and effectiveness of sodium bisulfate to decrease the fly population in a horse barn environment. Methods: 12 privately owned farms in southeastern Pennsylvania. Methods: Application rates of sodium bisulfate were approximately 2.3 kg/stall, 1.1 kg/stall, and 0.5 kg/stall. Two or 3 stalls were treated, and 1 or 2 stalls were not treated (control stalls) at each farm. Farm personnel applied sodium bisulfate in treated stalls daily for 7 days. Fly tapes were hung from the same site in treated and control stalls. After 24 hours, the fly tape was removed, flies adheri...
Sconza S, Di Cesare A, Iorio R, Bartolini R, Paoletti B, Traversa D.Cyathostomins, or 'small strongyles', are the most important equine helminths because of their worldwide distribution, spread of anthelmintic‑resistant populations, and pathogenic impact. The so‑called 'selective treatment' of those animals exceeding a certain faecal egg count (FEC) has recently been proposed to implement cyathostomin control programmes. The present study evaluated the extent of egg shedding in 475 horses living in 12 farms from 3 regions of Italy. All examined farms and 224 horses (47.6%...
Allen K, Anderson L, King M, Mullan S.The ethics of using horses in sport is receiving increasing attention and media scrutiny. Sports medicine ethics is an important and well-established discipline within human medicine and biomedical ethics, which has, thus far, received little application to the equine veterinary field. Objective: The purpose of this scoping review was to explore the existing literature on equine sports medicine ethics, to understand the current concerns and issues, and to map areas for future research. Methods: Scoping review. Methods: Academic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, CAB abstracts) were searched to...
Mordovskaia VI, Krivoshapkin VG, Pogozheva AV, Baĭkov VG.The gas chromatography method the fat acid content of the young Yakut horse meat fat tissue lipids was studied in relation to the age group, various parts of the body and anatomic topographic location of the fat/It was determined that the of sixth-month young horse is the source of the PUFA omega-3 that allows to recommend horse meat as a dietary product for atherosclerosis prevention. By medial chain fat content the lipids of the 6 month young horses are close to the lipids of milk fat.
Grewar JD, Sergeant ES, Weyer CT, van Helden LS, Parker BJ, Anthony T, Thompson PN.An African horse sickness (AHS) outbreak occurred in South Africa's AHS controlled area in autumn 2016. A freedom from disease survey was performed to establish the likelihood of ongoing circulation of the associated virus during the same period the following year. A single-stage surveillance strategy was employed with a population-level design prevalence of 1% to establish a survey population sensitivity of 95% (probability that one or more positive horses would be detected if AHS was present at a prevalence greater than or equal to the design prevalence). In March 2017, a total of 262 random...
Anderson C, Baha H, Boghdeh N, Barrera M, Alem F, Narayanan A.Zoonotic pathogens that are vector-transmitted have and continue to contribute to several emerging infections globally. In recent years, spillover events of such zoonotic pathogens have increased in frequency as a result of direct contact with livestock, wildlife, and urbanization, forcing animals from their natural habitats. Equines serve as reservoir hosts for vector-transmitted zoonotic viruses that are also capable of infecting humans and causing disease. From a One Health perspective, equine viruses, therefore, pose major concerns for periodic outbreaks globally. Several equine viruses ha...
Kirby AT, Traub-Dargatz JL, Hill AE, Kogan LR, Morley PS, Heird JC.To develop a questionnaire for self-assessment of biosecurity practices at equine boarding facilities and to evaluate infectious disease control practices in these facilities in Colorado. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: 64 equine boarding facilities in Colorado. Methods: Survey questions were rated according to importance for prevention and containment of equine infectious diseases. Point values (range, 0 to 20) were assigned for possible responses, with greater values given for optimal infection control methods. Questionnaires were mailed to equine boarding facilities in Colorado adv...
Peli A, Scagliarini L, Calbucci S, Diegoli G.The increasing awareness of animal welfare issues among consumers and the general public in the European Union has brought about the adoption of laws for the protection of production animals throughout the various steps of the food chain, from breeding to slaughter. Considering that horses may be kept for a variety of reasons, including as companion animals and as farm animals, protective legislation in Europe applies to this species only partially. In consistency with the areas of competence of the European Union, it is the purpose of the activity (be it economic/commercial or neither) and no...
Frazer JL, Perkins NR, Pitt D.During the 2007 equine influenza (EI) outbreak, infected horses were quarantined at Morgan Park Recreational Grounds (MPRG) near Warwick, Queensland. Some individuals caring for horses were reported to have made return journeys between MPRG and home properties containing other horses during the time there was active infection at MPRG. Objective: A retrospective cohort study to assess the biosecurity and hygiene measures undertaken and their outcomes. Methods: All individuals recorded as being responsible for caring for one or more horses at MPRG, and who were also recorded on entry and exit lo...
Bailly-Chouriberry L, Cormant F, Garcia P, Kind A, Popot MA, Bonnaire Y.Cobra venom (Naja kaouthia) contains a toxin called α-cobratoxin (α-Cbtx). This toxin is a natural protein containing 71 amino acids (MW 7821 Da) with a reported analgesic potency greater than morphine. In 2007, in USA, this substance was found in the barns of a thoroughbred trainer and since then till date, the lack of a detection of this molecule has remained a recurring problem for the horseracing industry worldwide. To solve this problem, the first method for the detection of α-cobratoxin in equine plasma has now been developed. Plasma sample (3 mL) was treated with ammonium sulfate at ...
Štritof Z, Mitchell C, Turk N, Habuš J, Hađina S, Perharić M, Waller AS.Clinical cases resembling strangles are regularly seen in some areas of Croatia. However, there are no data on the prevalence of infection and the clinical forms or geographic distribution of the disease. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Streptococcus equi subspecies equi in horses resident in Croatia, in order to estimate the geographic distribution of infection. The study included 291 horse sera from the eight counties where the majority of Croatian horses are kept. Sera were tested by indirect ELISA (iELISA) for the presence of serum antibodies against S. equi pr...
Millican L, Vanderstichel R, McClure J, MacMillan K.The objectives of this study were to determine the proportion of owners of horse farms in Prince Edward Island (PEI), Canada that were aware of the (CODE) and determine demographic factors associated with awareness. A questionnaire was completed by owners at fifty horse farms. In total, 38% of the farm owners were unaware of the CODE, 48% were aware, but were not familiar with its content and only 14% used the CODE when making decisions on caring for their horses. Owners of private stables were more aware of the CODE than owners of boarding stables. The CODE awareness varied between the three...
Arora S, Sharma S, Goel SK, Singh US.Implementation of the recommended post-exposure prophylaxis by vaccination and specific immunoglobulin therapy for rabies is largely hampered by its high cost and inadequate production. Therefore, the development and availability of an economic preparation of rabies immunoglobulin is a high priority for India, where rabies is a major cause of death. We studied the efficacy of four different adjuvants in raising antibodies to rabies antigen in older, discarded equines. Methods: Eleven equines, 23-26 years old, were divided into 4 groups to receive four different adjuvants in small amounts (1-2 ...
Traub-Dargatz J, Kopral C, Wagner B.This study is the first report estimating, on a national basis, the use of various biosecurity practices, singly and in combination, on U.S. equine operations. Use of biosecurity practices is described for operations by risk level, based on reported exposure of resident horses to outside horses during the previous 12 months. In addition, the association between use of various biosecurity practices and use of antibiotics to treat infectious disease in both adult equids and foals is reported. The comparison of these study findings with previously reported data in the literature is limited by the...
Nielsen BD.Much research has been conducted in an attempt to decrease skeletal injuries in athletic horses. The objective of this literature review is to compile the findings of over three decades of research in this area, make practical recommendations, and describe how research can develop over the years. An initial study investigating the role of bioavailable silicon in the diets of horses in race training produced the unexpected finding of decreased bone mineral content of the third metacarpus subsequent to the onset of training. Further studies revealed this decrease to be associated with stall hous...
Hassall L, Rigsby P, Stickings P.The International Standard for Diphtheria Antitoxin Equine is essential for the standardisation of assays used to determine the potency of therapeutic diphtheria antitoxin products produced from equine serum. This paper describes the production and characterization of the 2nd International Standard for Diphtheria Antitoxin Equine and its calibration in International Units. Calibration was performed by toxin neutralization test in vivo and in vitro (Vero cell assay), and potency was expressed relative to the 1st International Standard to ensure continuity of the International Unit. The candidat...
Olaleye OD, Omilabu SA, Baba SS, Fagbami AH.Sera from horses and pigs obtained from Lagos and Ibadan respectively were examined for haemagglutination-inhibiting (HI) antibodies to two strains each of H3N2 and H1N1 subtypes of influenza A virus. More horse sera had HI antibodies to the H3N2 than the H1N1 strains while pig sera reacted almost equally with strains of both subtypes. All the horse sera had HI antibodies to the two strains of H3N2 subtype (A/Mississippi/1/85 and A/Leningrad/360/86), while 87% and 14% of the horses examined were positive to A/Taiwan/1/86 and A/Chile/1/83. On the other hand HI antibody prevalence to the two sub...
O'Connor S, Hitchens PL, Bolwell C, Annan R, McGoldrick A, Fortington LV.Jockey injuries are common in professional horse-racing and can result in life-threatening or career-ending outcomes. Robust injury data are essential to understand the circumstances of injury occurrence and ultimately identify prevention opportunities. This study aimed to identify jockey injury surveillance practices of international horse-racing authorities (HRAs) and the specific data items collected and reported by each HRA. A cross-sectional survey of representatives (e.g. Chief Medical Officer) from international HRAs was conducted. An online and paper questionnaire was designed comprise...
Ríha J, Minár J, Skaloud J, Janes K, Králík O.Dipterous blood-sucking insects (horseflies, black flies, gnats, midges) have negative impacts on the performance of draught horses in forest enterprises. For the protection of these animals, the following preparations were applied at the interval of 24 hours: diethyltoluamide, Oxamat (N,N-diethyloxamine acid, USSR) and Stomoxin (synthetic pyrethroid, product of the firm Wellcome, England). In the course of 66 working days, the performance of test animals treated with 10% water emulsion of diethyltoluamide increased by 49.25 cu. m. of skidded wood, i.e. by 0.74 cu. m. wood per horse/day (21.65...
Laidoudi Y, Rousset E, Dessimoulie AS, Prigent M, Raptopoulo A, Huteau Q, Chabbert E, Navarro C, Fournier PE, Davoust B., also known as the causal agent of Q fever, is a zoonotic pathogen infecting humans and several animal species. Here, we investigated the epidemiological context of from an area in the Hérault department in southern France, using the One Health paradigm. In total, 13 human cases of Q fever were diagnosed over the last three years in an area comprising four villages. Serological and molecular investigations conducted on the representative animal population, as well as wind data, indicated that some of the recent cases are likely to have originated from a sheepfold, which revealed bacterial c...
Aquino Gde V, Maluta RP, de Ávila FA.The aim of this work was to establish the prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococci (MRS) in the animals and staff of a teaching and research farm. Samples of dairy cattle (36), beef cattle (26), sheep (19), horses (21), pigs (23), goats (23) and humans (13) were collected and screened for the presence of MRS. The detection of mecA gene was performed by PCR to determine the resistance of the samples to methicillin. Antimicrobial-resistance testing to penicillin, meropenem, ceftriaxone, cephalothin, oxacillin, levofloxacin, enrofloxacin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, gentamicin, clind...
Coultous R, Gotić J, McCann M, Sutton D, Beck R, Shiels B.The apicomplexan haemoparasite Theileria equi, a causative agent of equine piroplasmosis, is an established pathogen of significant welfare and economic concern within the Croatian equine population. A previous large surveillance study of T. equi has identified two distinct parasite populations, one in the north and one in the south, geographically separated by the Dinaric Alps, which traverse the country. This study aimed to further investigate the genetic diversity within these two populations, focussing on allelic variability of the equi merozoite antigen gene, ema-1. Methods: Following nes...
Steinman A, Sutton GA, Elad D.Rhodococcus equi is an important pathogen in young horses. In recent years it has been increasingly recognized as an opportunistic infectious agent in patients with immune deficiency. The increase in recognized cases may be related to the increased prevalence of AIDS. However, more cases may have been recognized lately due to increased awareness of the pathogenicity of this bacterium. Based on medical reports, there appears to be an association between Rhodococcus equi infections and exposure to animals, horses in particular. During the past year, 2 cases of rhodococcus pneumonia were diagnose...
Wilson RT.Equines are minor species in Tanzania's array of domestic livestock. Attempts to use them for transport by early explorers from the mid-nineteenth century usually failed. Donkeys were used extensively as pack animals to complement human porters by both British and German forces in the First World War, but their advantages were often outweighed by slow progress and competition with troops and porters for water, and they died in huge numbers. The British had regular cavalry troops in their campaign and mules found limited use as individual mounts for officers. In modern times, there are very few...
Kinoshita Y, Niwa H, Uchida-Fujii E, Nukada T.The incidence of equine proliferative enteropathy, caused by Lawsonia intracellularis, is increasing around the world. To investigate the relationships of variable-number tandem repeat (VNTR) patterns with host species and clinical status in horses, multilocus VNTR analysis (MLVA) was applied to 98 L. intracellularis samples collected from horses, seven from pigs, seven from wildlife, one vaccine strain, and 17 public strains. The VNTR patterns were highly diverse: a total of 130 samples identified 99 distinct patterns, and the 98 horses were classified into 71 different patterns. A phylogen...
Bampidis V, Azimonti G, Bastos ML, Christensen H, Dusemund B, Durjava M, Kouba M, López-Alonso M, López Puente S, Marcon F, Mayo B, Pechová A....Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on DSM 11520 when used as a technological additive (acidity regulator) in feed for horses, dogs, cats and pet rabbits. The additive is intended to be incorporated into oat-derived products (ca. 55% moisture content), carrot root-derived products (≥ 90% moisture) and coconut flesh-derived products (≥ 90% moisture) at a minimum inclusion level of 8.0 × 10 CFU/kg of the feed material under scope. The bacterial species is considered by EFSA to be suitable for the qualified presumption ...
Barker SA.Advances in analytical technology now make it feasible to detect and confirm exceptionally low concentrations (pg to fg/mL) of drugs and their metabolites in equine biological fluids. These new capabilities complicate the regulatory interpretation of drug positives and bring into question the fair application of medication rules. Such approaches and policies are further complicated by the possibility that drug positives may arise from contamination of the equine environment on the backstretch of the race track. This manuscript provides data demonstrating that the general environment of the bac...
Zarghooni K, Hub L, Bredow J, Yagdiran A, Hackenberg RK, Scheyerer M, Westermann L, Eysel P, Siewe J.Equestrian vaulting is a sport, particularly popular among children and adolescents, in which gymnastic and dance routines are performed on horseback. Current data regarding injuries and thus, the risks of this sport, is meager and based only on retrospective studies. Methods: In the current prospective study, 233 active members of a vaulting club were questioned monthly from November 2014 until October 2015. In addition to general information (training, competitions), the questionnaire collected the number of competitions, the competitive class, the discipline (single, team, Pas-de-Deux), and...
Lubow BC, Ransom JI.Reliably estimating wildlife abundance is fundamental to effective management. Aerial surveys are one of the only spatially robust tools for estimating large mammal populations, but statistical sampling methods are required to address detection biases that affect accuracy and precision of the estimates. Although various methods for correcting aerial survey bias are employed on large mammal species around the world, these have rarely been rigorously validated. Several populations of feral horses (Equus caballus) in the western United States have been intensively studied, resulting in identifica...
Smith K, Templeton A.Previous research suggests that shared social identification and expected support from others can reduce the extent to which attendees of mass events perceive that others pose health risks. This study evaluated the social identity processes associated with perceived risk at UK pilot sporting events held during COVID-19, including the government Events Research Programme. An online survey (N = 2029) measured attendee perceptions that other spectators adhered to safety measures, shared social identity with other attendees, expectations that others would provide support, and the perceived risk ...
