Treadmill exercise for horses involves the use of a controlled mechanical platform to simulate various gaits and intensities of physical activity. This form of exercise allows for consistent and measurable training conditions, which can be used for rehabilitation, fitness assessment, and performance enhancement. Treadmill exercise facilitates the study of equine locomotion, respiratory function, and cardiovascular response under standardized conditions. It is also utilized in research to evaluate the effects of different training regimens and to investigate metabolic and physiological responses to exercise. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodology, applications, and implications of treadmill exercise in equine practice.
Sapone M, Martin P, Ben Mansour K, Chateau H, Marin F.The protraction and retraction angles of horse limbs are important in the analysis of horse locomotion. This study explored two methods from an IMU positioned on the canon bone of eight horses to estimate these angles. Each method was based on a hypothesis in order to define the moment corresponding with the verticality of the canon bone: (i) the canon bone is in a vertical position at 50% of the stance phase or (ii) the verticality of the canon bone corresponds with the moment when the horse's withers reach their lowest point. The measurements were carried out on a treadmill at a trot and com...
Glycogen in skeletal muscle is a major source of energy during exercise and an important determinant of endurance capacity, so that its measurement may provide a meaningful marker of athletes' preparation and a possible predictor of performance, both in humans and in equines. Gold standard of glycogen concentration measurement is the histochemical and biochemical analysis of biopsy-derived muscle tissue, an invasive and potentially injuring procedure. Recently, high-frequency ultrasound (US) technology is being exploited in human sports medicine to estimate muscle glycogen content. Therefore, ...
Schwarz J, Vidondo B, Maninchedda UE, Sprick M, Schöpfer MC, Cruz AM. To assess the inter-evaluator and intra-evaluator reliability of a software program used to extract kinematic variables by a commercially available extremity-mounted inertial measurement unit system in sound horses at the trot under soft and hard ground conditions and treadmill exercise. Thirty adult, sound and healthy French Montagne stallions. Data collection was performed with six IMUs strapped to the distal, metacarpal, metatarsal and tibial regions of every horse. Per surface (treadmill, soft and hard ground) 10 stallions were trotted three times. Prior to the analysis done by six eval...
Mukai K, Ohmura H, Takahashi Y, Kitaoka Y, Takahashi T.We investigated whether horses trained in moderate and mild hypoxia demonstrate greater improvement in performance and aerobic capacity compared to horses trained in normoxia and whether the acquired training effects are maintained after 2 weeks of post-hypoxic training in normoxia. Seven untrained Thoroughbred horses completed 4 weeks (3 sessions/week) of three training protocols, consisting of 2-min cantering at 95% maximal oxygen consumption under two hypoxic conditions (H16, F O = 16%; H18, F O = 18%) and in normoxia (N21, F O = 21%), followed by 2 weeks of post-hypoxic traini...
Nankervis K, Tranquille C, McCrae P, York J, Lashley M, Baumann M, King M, Sykes E, Lambourn J, Miskimmin KA, Allen D, van Mol E, Brooks S....Water treadmill exercise has become popular in recent years for the training and rehabilitation of equine athletes. In 2019, an equine hydrotherapy working group was formed to establish what was commonly considered to be best practice in the use of the modality. This article describes the process by which general guidelines for the application of water treadmill exercise in training and rehabilitation programmes were produced by the working group. The guidelines describe the consensus reached to date on (1) the potential benefits of water treadmill exercise, (2) general good practice in water ...
Pugliese BR, Brisbois AL, Size KJ, St George LB, Hobbs SJ, Kirker-Head CA.To evaluate the ability of novel legwear designed to limit extension of the metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ) to redirect loading forces from the flexor apparatus during walk, trot, and canter on a treadmill and during unrestrained and restrained activity in a stall. Methods: 6 adult horses without musculoskeletal disease. Methods: Legwear-derived force data were recorded under 4 conditions: inactive state (unlimited legwear extension) and 3 active (restrictive) states (mild, 30° extension; moderate, 20° extension; or maximum, 10° extension). Associations between peak legwear loads and torqu...
St George LB, Pugliese BR, Hobbs SJ, Brisbois AL, Sinclair JK, Kirker-Head CA.To investigate the effects of novel legwear designed to limit metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ) extension and redirect loading forces from the flexor apparatus through analyses of 2-D kinematic and kinetic data. Methods: 6 adult horses without musculoskeletal disease. Methods: Horses were subjected to 4 treatments: control (no legwear), inactive legwear (unlimited legwear extension), and active legwear with mild (30°) and moderate (20°) legwear extension limitation. Two-dimensional kinematic data were collected for the right forelimb (FL) during walk and trot and from leading and trailing FLs...
Ohmura H, Mukai K, Matsui A, Takahashi T, Jones JH.Supramaximal exercise while inspiring different O gases may induce different responses in cardiopulmonary function at the same relative and/or absolute exercise intensity. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of supramaximal exercise in hypoxia, normoxia and hyperoxia on cardiopulmonary function in Thoroughbred horses. Using a crossover design, five well-trained horses were made to run up a 6% grade on a treadmill at supramaximal speeds sustainable for approximately 110 sec (approximately 115% Omax) while breathing normoxic gas (NO, 21% O) or hypoxic gas (LO, 15.3% O) in random...
Slack J, Stefanovski D, Madsen TF, Fjordbakk CT, Strand E, Fintl C.The significance of cardiac arrhythmias and their possible association with upper airway obstruction are frequently considered in the clinical investigation of poor performance. The specific aims of this retrospective study of a group of poorly performing Standardbred and Norwegian-Swedish Coldblooded trotters were to: (1) describe the overall frequency and frequency distributions of arrhythmias; (2) describe arrhythmia characteristics including percent prematurity, relative recovery cycle lengths and QRS morphology; (3) describe variability of normal RR intervals; and (4) explore possible ass...
Reef VB, Davidson EJ, Slack J, Stefanovski D.Cardiac arrhythmias are common in horses during exercise, especially immediately post-exercise. The objectives of this study were to: (1) describe the frequency and type of cardiac arrhythmias detected in horses during incremental high-speed treadmill exercise testing (ITET); (2) determine if arterial blood gas (ABG) changes at peak and immediately post-exercise were associated with arrhythmias; and (3) determine whether upper or lower airway disease was associated with exercising cardiac arrhythmias. Horses (n = 368) presenting for an ITET underwent resting and exercising upper airway endosco...
Müller-Quirin J, Dittmann MT, Roepstorff C, Arpagaus S, Latif SN, Weishaupt MA.Lameness is a symptom indicative of pain or injury of the locomotor apparatus. Lame horses generally should not be ridden. However, owners' ability to assess lameness has been questioned. This study's aim was to use subjective lameness assessments and objective gait analysis to generate a descriptive overview of movement and weight-bearing asymmetries of owner-sound riding horses. 235 horses were subjectively assessed in a field study, and the owner's perception of their horse's orthopedic health was recorded through an online survey. 69 horses were re-evaluated by gait analysis at an equine h...
Serra Bragança FM, Hernlund E, Thomsen MH, Waldern NM, Rhodin M, Byström A, van Weeren PR, Weishaupt MA.There is a paucity of research describing the gait pattern of lame horses at the walk. Objective: To describe the changes in motion pattern and vertical ground reaction forces (GRFz) in horses with induced forelimb lameness at the walk and compare those changes with the changes observed at the trot. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: In 10 clinically sound Warmblood horses, moderate forelimb lameness was induced using a sole pressure model followed by trot and walk on a treadmill. Kinematic data were collected using 3D optical motion capture (OMC), and GRFz by an instrumented treadmill. Mix...
Potenza KN, Huggons NA, Jones ARE, Rosanowski SM, McIlwraith CW.Rehabilitation of horses using underwater treadmill therapy has been shown to improve joint range of motion, joint mobility, stride length and proprioceptive parameters with experimental studies. However, studies investigating the prognosis and return to function following rehabilitation are lacking. Methods: A retrospective study of Thoroughbred racehorses treated with arthroscopic surgery for osteochondral fragments of the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) or metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints or carpal joints undergoing conventional rehabilitation or underwater treadmill assisted rehabilitation at th...
Arfuso F, Giannetto C, Giudice E, Fazio F, Panzera F, Piccione G.The aim of this study was to assess whether acid-base profile exhibits changes in regularly trained show jumping horses undergoing increasing exercise workloads. Seven female Italian saddle horses were subjected to three different physical exercise trials of increasing workload identified as three exercise phases (EPs). During EPI horses were subjected to a standardized exercise test consisting of 15 minutes of treadmill, during EPII horses were subjected to a show jumping test (height, 0.9-1.1 m; course length, 300 m), during EPIII horses underwent two jumping sessions carried out over two...
Stapley ED, Stutzman BE, Manfredi JM.The stirrup iron has the potential to modify the forces experienced by a horse and rider during ridden exercise. A range of stirrup designs are available, but no previous studies have investigated if these modifications influence riders' position and interaction with the horse. Novel flexible (F) or flexible and rotatable (FR) irons versus traditional (T) stirrups may positively impact the welfare and performance of the horse and rider. Four riders rode using the three stirrup types (T, F, and FR). Hip, knee, and ankle angles and toe position from film, and the normal force exerted bilaterally...
Kiely M, Warrington GD, McGoldrick A, Pugh J, Cullen S.Kiely, M, Warrington, GD, McGoldrick, A, Pugh, J, and Cullen, S. Physiological demands of professional flat and jump horse racing. J Strength Cond Res 34(8): 2173-2177, 2020-No information is currently available on the effect of race distance on the physiological demands of jockeys. This study aimed to quantify the respective demands of short and long flat and jump race distances. Twenty professional jockeys (10 flat and 10 jump) participated in the study. The subjects initially performed a graded incremental exercise test to volitional exhaustion on a treadmill to determine the peak heart rat...
Cercone M, Brown BN, Stahl EC, Mitchell LM, Fortier LA, Mohammed HO, Ducharme NG.Respiratory function in the horse can be severely compromised by arytenoid chondritis, or arytenoid chondropathy, a pathologic condition leading to deformity and dysfunction of the affected cartilage. Current treatment in cases unresponsive to medical management is removal of the cartilage, which can improve the airway obstruction, but predisposes the patient to other complications like tracheal penetration of oropharyngeal content and dynamic collapse of the now unsupported soft tissue lateral to the cartilage. A tissue engineering approach to reconstructing the arytenoid cartilage would repr...
Silvers BL, Leatherwood JL, Arnold CE, Nielsen BD, Huseman CJ, Dominguez BJ, Glass KG, Martinez RE, Much ML, Bradbery AN.While beneficial in rehabilitation, aquatic exercise effects on cartilage and bone metabolism in young, healthy horses has not been well described. Therefore, 30 Quarter Horse yearlings (343 ± 28 kg; 496 ± 12 d of age) were stratified by age, body weight (BW), and sex and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatments for 140-d to evaluate effects of aquatic, dry, or no exercise on bone and cartilage metabolism in young horses transitioning to an advanced workload. Treatments included nonexercise control (CON; n = 10), dry treadmill (DRY; n = 10), or aquatic treadmill exercise (H2O; n = 10; water: 6...
There are several bioengineering solutions aimed at improving human health and welfare. Smart electrodes based on textile substrates have met the growing demand for comfort, reliability, and robustness when acquiring physiological signals. Objective: Given the importance of good quality electrocardiograms (ECG) in equine sports medicine, this study focuses on the validation of smart textile electrodes to acquire ECG signals in horses during treadmill exercise. Methods: The performance of the smart textile electrodes is compared with standard silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrodes in terms...
de Oliveira GP, Porto WF, Palu CC, Pereira LM, Reis AMM, Marçola TG, Teixeira-Neto AR, Franco OL, Pereira RW.Physical exercise is an essential factor in preventing and treating metabolic diseases by promoting systemic benefits throughout the body. The molecular factors involved in this process are poorly understood. Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that inhibit mRNA transcription. MiRNAs, which can participate in the benefits of exercise to health, circulate in plasma in extracellular particles (EP). Horses that undergo endurance racing are an excellent model to study the impact of long-duration/low intensity exercise in plasma EP miRNAs. Objective: To evaluate the effects of 160 km end...
Fretheim-Kelly Z, Fjordbakk CT, Fintl C, Krontveit R, Strand E.Bits have often been incriminated as a cause of upper respiratory tract obstruction in horses; however, no scientific studies are available to confirm or refute these allegations. Clinical signs of dynamic laryngeal collapse associated with poll flexion (DLC) are induced when susceptible horses are ridden or driven into the bit. Objective: To determine whether use of Dr Cook's™ Bitless Bridle, instead of a conventional snaffle bit bridle, would reduce the severity of DLC in affected horses measured objectively using inspiratory tracheal pressures. Methods: Intervention study using each horse...
Klein DJ, Anthony TG, McKeever KH.metabolomics is the high-throughput, multiparametric identification and classification of hundreds of low molecular weight metabolites in a biological sample. Ultimately, metabolites are the downstream readouts of cellular signalling, transcriptomic and proteomic changes that can provide a comprehensive view of tissue and organismal phenotype. The popularity of metabolomics in human sport and exercise has been gaining over the past decade and has provided important insights into the energetic demands and mechanistic underpinnings of exercise and training. To the contrary, metabolomics in the f...
Knych HK, Wilson WD, Vale A, Kass PH, Steffey EP, Jones JH, Arthur RM.Although controversial, due to its reported effectiveness in attenuating bleeding associated with exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), furosemide is currently a permitted race day medication in most North American racing jurisdictions. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of furosemide in reducing the presence and severity of EIPH when administered 24 hr prior to strenuous treadmill exercise. Eight exercised Thoroughbred horses received saline or 250 mg of furosemide either 4 or 24 hr prior to high-speed treadmill exercise in a balanced 3-way cross-over design. Bl...
Restan AZ, Camacho AA, Cerqueira JA, Zacché E, Kirnew MD, Loureiro BA, Silva SB, Moranza HG, Ferraz GC.The dogs' responses to training exercise are seldom monitored using physiological variables, and cardiac autonomic regulation (CAR) is a relevant determinant of endurance-training adaptation. There are studies in the literature establishing that regular exercise could interfere with CAR in dogs, measured by heart rate and vagal-derived indexes of heart-rate-variability (HRV). However, few studies were found using a prescribed training program based on the lactate threshold (LT) to determine HRV by a 24-h Holter analysis. The purpose of this study was to test whether an endurance-training progr...
Masko M, Domino M, Lewczuk D, Jasinski T, Gajewski Z.A treadmill is an important tool in the equine analysis of gait, lameness, and hoof balance, as well as for the evaluation of horse rehabilitation or poor performance including dynamic endoscopy. Before all of these uses, horses have to be habituated to a treadmill locomotion. We used principal component analysis to evaluate the relationship between aspects of the horse's temperament and emotional response, and progress in the behavioral habituation to a treadmill. Fourteen horses were tested, by the same familiar handler, using the novel object test, the handling test, and both positive and n...
Sapone M, Martin P, Ben Mansour K, Château H, Marin F.The development of on-board sensors, such as inertial measurement units (IMU), has made it possible to develop new methods for analyzing horse locomotion to detect lameness. The detection of spatiotemporal events is one of the keystones in the analysis of horse locomotion. This study assesses the performance of four methods for detecting Foot on and Foot off events. They were developed from an IMU positioned on the canon bone of eight horses during trotting recording on a treadmill and compared to a standard gold method based on motion capture. These methods are based on accelerometer and gyro...
Mukai K, Ohmura H, Matsui A, Aida H, Takahashi T, Jones JH.We examined the effects of high-intensity training in normobaric hypoxia on aerobic capacity and exercise performance in horses and the individual response to normoxic and hypoxic training. Eight untrained horses were studied in a randomized, crossover design after training in hypoxia (HYP; 15.0% inspired O ) or normoxia (NOR; 20.9% inspired O ) 3 days/week for 4 weeks separated by a 4-month washout period. Before and after each training period, incremental treadmill exercise tests were performed in normoxia. Each training session consisted of 1 min cantering at 7 m/s and 2 min galloping ...
Byström A, Clayton HM, Hernlund E, Roepstorff L, Rhodin M, Bragança FS, Engell MT, van Weeren R, Weishaupt MA, Egenvall A.Left-right movement symmetry is a highly desirable characteristic in sport horses. Objective: This study compared movement symmetry in well-trained dressage horses in unridden and unrestrained position and ridden in a dressage frame, and investigated possible associations between gaits. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Seven sound, high-level dressage horses were measured at walk and sitting trot on a treadmill at several speeds under two conditions: with and without rider. Left-right differences in stance duration, stance protraction and retraction based on longitudinal hoof positions, i...
Kau S, Potz IK, Pospisil K, Sellke L, Schramel JP, Peham C.Bit configuration and acting rein forces play a crucial role in oral health and comfort of ridden horses. Although it is a big animal welfare issue, dynamic response of horses to different bits has yet not been thoroughly investigated. This convenience sample experimental study describes a model to overcome the almost uncontrollable influence of riders on rein tension and evaluates self-controlled maximum side rein tension of ten sound horses randomly bitted with a double-jointed (DJS) and a version of a Mullen mouth snaffle-bit under unridden conditions. Horses were exercised at walk and trot...
Saitua A, Becero M, Argüelles D, Castejón-Riber C, Sánchez de Medina A, Satué K, Muñoz A.Horse trainers often claim that exercise on a water treadmill (WT) leads to a greater muscle power and development compared to terrestrial locomotion, because of the greater viscosity of water compared to air. This research assesses locomotor changes measured with accelerometers fixed in the pectoral region and in the sacrum midline in six horses subjected to exercise sessions of 40 min duration on a WT without water (DT), and with water at the depth of fetlock (FET) and carpus (CAR) with velocities of 6 km/h and at the depth of stifle (STF) at 5 km/h. Another five horses performed the same ex...
Chiaradia E, Avellini L, Rueca F, Spaterna A, Porciello F, Antonioni MT, Gaiti A.Since it has been suggested that lipid peroxidation following free radical overproduction may be one of the causes of physical exercise-induced myopathies and hemolysis in horses, we looked for the possible relationships between these phenomena and muscle fiber damage. We use a homogeneous group of Maremmana stallions which, after a 3-month training period, underwent a series of physical exercises of increasing intensity. We determined the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA), one of the main lipid peroxidation end-products, and glutathione the substrate of one of the most important free radical ...
Peham C, Kotschwar AB, Borkenhagen B, Kuhnke S, Molsner J, Baltacis A.The aim of the study was to compare the stability of the rider as well as the forces acting on a horse's back with different seating positions at the trot (sitting trot, rising trot and two-point seat). The same experienced rider was mounted on 10 sound horses trotting on a treadmill. The kinetic data were recorded with an electronic pressure mat, placed under a well-fitting dressage saddle with no saddle pad. The rider used three different seating positions, each for 20 s. Right forelimb motion was used to synchronise the pressure data with the stride cycles. To determine the rider's stabilit...
Couëtil LL, Denicola DB.The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cytology, arterial blood gases and plasma lactate concentration during a standardised treadmill test (STT) in racehorses with small-airway inflammation (SAI), or exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH). Sixteen Thoroughbred and 20 Standardbred actively racing racehorses, were divided into a control group (n = 10), EIPH group (n = 13) and SAI group (n = 13). Each STT consisted of a 2 min trot at 4 m/s followed by 5 x 1 min, incremental speed steps (6, 8, 10, 11 and 12 m/s) at 10% incline for Th...
Norrdin RW, Kawcak CE, Capwell BA, McIlwraith CW.Gross examination of metacarpo-/metatarsophalangeal (fetlock) joints from racehorses revealed defects on the condylar surface that ranged from cartilage fibrillation and erosion to focal cartilage indentations and cavitation in subchondral bone characteristic of traumatic osteochondrosis. Because these lesions represented a spectrum of mechanically induced arthrosis in which microdamage is thought to play a role, a histologic study of sagittal sections was made to study the morphogenesis. Subchondral bone failure developed beneath a flattened section of the condyle where the margin of the sesa...
Marlin DJ, Scott CM, Roberts CA, Casas I, Holah G, Schroter RC.Whereas the efficacy of cold water cooling of horses has been demonstrated by several studies, the dynamics of temperature changes within and between compartments (primarily muscle, blood [core], skin and deep core [rectal]) have not been investigated. Changes in body temperature associated with cold water cooling were investigated in the hyperthermic horse. Muscle (TMU), pulmonary artery (TPA), rectal (TREC), tail-skin (TTSK) and coat surface (TCOAT) temperatures, were monitored continuously in 5 Thoroughbred horses during and after exercise in hot humid (30 degrees C and 80% RH) conditions o...
Armstrong RB, Essén-Gustavsson B, Hoppeler H, Jones JH, Kayar SR, Laughlin MH, Lindholm A, Longworth KE, Taylor CR, Weibel ER.The purpose of this study was to describe the relationships between 16 physiological, biochemical, and morphological variables presumed to relate to the oxidative capacity in quadriceps muscles or muscle parts in Standardbred horses. The variables included O2 delivery (blood flow) and mean capillary transit time (MTT) during treadmill locomotion at whole animal maximal O2 consumption (VO2max, 134 +/- 2 ml.min-1 x kg-1), capillary density and capillary-to-fiber ratio, myoglobin concentration, oxidative enzyme activities, glycolytic enzyme activities, fiber type populations, and fiber size. Thes...
Soroko M, Śpitalniak-Bajerska K, Zaborski D, Poźniak B, Dudek K, Janczarek I.The aim of the study was to assess the effects of training on haematological and biochemical blood parameters as well as on the changes in body surface temperature in horses. In order to identify the predictive value of surface temperature measurements as a marker of animal's performance, their correlations with blood parameters were investigated. The study was carried out on nine horses divided into two groups: routinely ridden and never ridden. Infrared thermography was used to assess surface temperature changes before (BT) and just after training (JAT) on a treadmill. Seven regions of int...
Votion DM, Fraipont A, Goachet AG, Robert C, van Erck E, Amory H, Ceusters J, de la Rebière de Pouyade G, Franck T, Mouithys-Mickalad A, Niesten A....Limited information exists about the muscle mitochondrial respiratory function changes that occur in horses during an endurance season. Objective: To determine effects of training and racing on muscle oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and electron transport system (ETS) capacities in horses with high resolution respirometry (HRR). Methods: Mitochondrial respiration was measured in microbiopsies taken from the triceps brachii (tb) and gluteus medius (gm) muscles in 8 endurance horses (7 purebred Arabians and 1 crossbred Arabian) before training (T0), after two 10 week training periods (T1, T2)...
Sánchez A, Couëtil LL, Ward MP, Clark SP.Inflammatory Airway Disease (IAD), exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH), and upper airway obstruction (UAO) are common respiratory tract diseases that can decrease performance. The purpose of this retrospective study was to compare bronchoalveolar lavage fluid cytology and arterial blood gas analysis during a treadmill test by poorly performing racehorses presented to Purdue University. One hundred thirty-two horses with a history of poor performance were included in this study. Ten horses with no history or diagnosis of EIPH, IAD, or UAO served as controls. Horses were evaluated by rh...
Nagahisa H, Mukai K, Ohmura H, Takahashi T, Miyata H.Hypoxic training is believed to increase endurance capacity in association with hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), a modulator of vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), and to influence activation of satellite cells (SCs). However, the effect of hypoxic training on SC activation and its relation to angiogenesis has not been thoroughly investigated. Eight Thoroughbred horses were subjected to normoxic (F = 21%) or hypoxic (F = 15%) training for 3 days/week (100% [Formula: see text]) for 4 weeks. Incremental exercise tests (IET) were conducted on a treadmill under normoxia and the ...
Rivero JL, Talmadge RJ, Edgerton VR.The histochemical myofibrillar ATPase (mATPase) method is used routinely for identification of equine skeletal muscle fiber types, but important problems have been observed with the subdivision of fast fiber population when using this method. To verify the use of this qualitative method, a number of equine muscle biopsies were analyzed with a combination of histochemical, immunohistochemical, electrophoretic, and morphometric techniques. The influence of training on these interrelations was also evaluated. Methods: Five young (2-3 years old) thoroughbred horses were intensively trained for 8 m...
Kindig CA, McDonough P, Erickson HH, Poole DC.There is evidence that oxidative enzyme inertia plays a major role in limiting/setting the O(2) uptake (VO(2)) response at the transition to higher metabolic rates and also that nitric oxide (NO) competitively inhibits VO(2) within the electron transport chain. To investigate whether NO is important in setting the dynamic response of VO(2) at the onset of high-intensity (heavy-domain) running in horses, five geldings were run on a treadmill across speed transitions from 3 m/s to speeds corresponding to 80% of peak VO(2) with and without nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), an NO synthase in...
Keegan KG, Pai PF, Wilson DA, Smith BK.In horses at a trot, the head moves up and down twice in one stride. In horses with unilateral forelimb lameness this movement is asymmetric. Computer-assisted kinematic analysis of vertical head movement can be used to quantify objectively lameness in horses in clinical trials. However, in mild lameness, absolute measurements of vertical head height may not be sensitive enough to detect small differences in lameness, and extraneous head movement by the horse due to curiosity, excitement or nervousness interferes with the accurate measurement of vertical head movement asymmetry. We describe a ...
Richard EA, Fortier GD, Pitel PH, Dupuis MC, Valette JP, Art T, Denoix JM, Lekeux PM, Erck EV.The objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence of sub-clinical diseases in poorly-performing Standardbred horses, compare their physiological response to exercise with control horses, and identify predictive parameters of poor-performance. Fifty horses underwent thorough clinical and ancillary examinations, including haematological and biochemical evaluation, Doppler echocardiography, standardised exercise tests (SETs) on both treadmill and racetrack, treadmill video-endoscopy and collection of respiratory fluids. Most of the poorly-performing horses exhibited many concomitant d...
Robert C, Valette JP, Denoix JM.Electromyographic activity (EMG) was used to determine how hindlimb muscle activation patterns vary with speed and incline in the horse. EMG was recorded using surface electrodes over the gluteus medius and tensor fasciae latae muscles during treadmill locomotion at trot for different combinations of speed (3.5 to 6 m/s) and inclination (0, 3 and 6%). Raw EMG signals were processed to determine stride duration, activity onset and end, and integrated EMG (IEMG). Stride and stance phase duration decreased linearly with increasing speed. Stride duration was not influenced by the slope. Onset and ...
Rhodin M, Johnston C, Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Drevemo S.A common opinion among riders and in the literature is that the positioning of the head and neck influences the back of the horse, but this has not yet been measured objectively. Objective: To evaluate the effect of head and neck position on the kinematics of the back in riding horses. Methods: Eight Warmblood riding horses in regular work were studied on a treadmill at walk and trot with the head and neck in 3 different predetermined positions achieved by side reins attached to the bit and to an anticast roller. The 3-dimensional movement of the thoracolumbar spine was measured from the posit...
Robert C, Valette JP, Denoix JM.The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of speed and slope on the activity of trunk muscles. The electromyographic (EMG) activity of the splenius (Sp), longissimus dorsi (LD) and rectus abdominis (RA) muscles was recorded with surface electrodes during treadmill locomotion at trot for different combinations of speed (3.5 to 6 m/s) and slope (0 to 6%). Raw EMG signals were processed to determine activity duration, onset and end and integrated EMG (IEMG). For the 3 muscles investigated, onset and end of activity were obtained earlier in the stride cycle when speed increased. A long...
Evans DL, Rose RJ.Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to submaximal exercise training were investigated in 6 thoroughbred racehorses. Oxygen uptake, heart rate (HR) and arteriovenous oxygen content difference were measured during incremental treadmill exercise tests, before and after 7 weeks of treadmill training. Cardiac output during exercise was calculated by the direct Fick technique. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) was increased by 23% after training, from 129.7 ml/kg/min to 160.0 ml/kg/min. The treadmill speed at which VO2max was attained increased by 19%. The increased aerobic power after training wa...
Nolen-Walston RD, Harris M, Agnew ME, Martin BB, Reef VB, Boston RC, Davidson EJ.To determine whether there are important differences relating to seasonality of signs or clinical features between subtypes of inflammatory airway disease (IAD) in horses caused by neutrophilic and eosinophilic-mastocytic inflammation having dissimilar etiopathologic pathways. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 98 horses. Methods: Data were compiled from medical records of horses examined because of poor performance from 2004 through 2010. Horses underwent a standardized high-speed treadmill test, lameness evaluation, cardiac evaluation, and postexercise bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL)....
Tan RH, Dowling BA, Dart AJ.The purpose of the study was to describe the prevalence of upper airway abnormalities and establish if any significant associations existed between study variables and the two most frequently identified disorders; axial deviation of the aryepiglottic folds and dorsal displacement of the soft palate. The clinical records and video-recordings of all horses referred for upper respiratory tract evaluation during high-speed treadmill videoendoscopy between November 1997 and September 2003 were reviewed. Of 291 horses included in the study, 265 underwent resting endoscopy and 42% (112/265) had a rec...
Weishaupt MA, Hogg HP, Auer JA, Wiestner T.Gait analysis parameters are sensitive to alterations in velocity. For comparison of nonspeed-matched data, the velocity dependency needs to be known. Objective: To describe the changes in gait pattern and determine the relationships between stride duration, vertical impulse, contact time and peak vertical force within a range of walking and trotting speeds. Methods: Thirty-eight nonlame Warmblood horses were subjected to an incremental speed test. The spans of speed were adjusted individually to each horse and ranged from 1.1-2.1 m/s at walk and from 2.5-5.8 m/s at trot. Time, force and spati...
Physick-Sheard PW, Marlin DJ, Thornhill R, Schroter RC.The pattern of variation in heart rate on a beat-to-beat basis contains information concerning sympathetic (SNS) and parasympathetic (PNS) contributions to autonomic nervous system (ANS) modulation of heart rate (HR). In the present study, heart period (RR interval) time series data were collected at rest and during 3 different treadmill exercise protocols from 6 Thoroughbred horses. Frequency and spectral power were determined in 3 frequency bands: very low (VLF) 0-0.01-0.07-< or = 0.5 cycles/beat. Indicators of sympathetic (SNSI = LO/HI) and parasympathetic (PNSI = HI/TOTAL) activity were...
Kinnunen S, Hyyppä S, Lehmuskero A, Oksala N, Mäenpää P, Hänninen O, Atalay M.Strenuous exercise is a potent inducer of oxidative stress, which has been suggested to be associated with disturbances in muscle homeostasis, fatigue and injury. There is no comprehensive or uniform view of the antioxidant status in horses. We have previously shown that moderate exercise induces protein oxidation in trotters. The aim of this study was to measure the antioxidative capacity of the horse in relation to different antioxidant components and oxidative stress markers after a single bout of moderate exercise to elucidate the mechanisms of antioxidant protection in horses. Eight clini...
Licka TF, Peham C, Frey A.To use electromyography (EMG) to measure physiologic activity of the longissimus dorsi muscles of horses during trotting on a treadmill. Methods: 15 adult horses (5 to 20 years old that weighed 450 to 700 kg) that did not have clinical signs of back pain. Methods: Data were recorded for each horse during trotting on a treadmill at speeds of 2.6 to 4.4 m/s. Surface electromyography was recorded bilaterally from the longissimus dorsi muscles at the levels of T12, T16, and L3. Results: In each motion cycle, 2 EMG maxima were found at the end of the diagonal stance phases. The EMG activity peaked ...
Nieto JE, Snyder JR, Vatistas NJ, Jones JH.To develop a protocol to induce and maintain gastric ulceration in horses and to determine whether gastric ulceration affects physiologic indices of performance during high-speed treadmill exercise. Methods: 20 healthy Thoroughbreds. Methods: Each horse was acclimatized to treadmill exercise during a 2-week period. Subsequently, baseline data were collected (day 0) and each horse began an incrementally increasing exercise training program (days 1 through 56). Beginning on day 14, horses were administered omeprazole (4 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h until day 56) or no drug (10 horses/group) and underwent a...
King MR, Haussler KK, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Reiser RF, Frisbie DD, Werpy NM.OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effects of exercise in an underwater treadmill (UWT) on forelimb biomechanics and articular histologic outcomes in horses with experimentally induced osteoarthritis of the middle carpal joint. ANIMALS 16 horses. PROCEDURES An osteochondral fragment was induced arthroscopically (day 0) in 1 middle carpal joint of each horse. Beginning on day 15, horses were assigned to exercise in a UWT or in the UWT without water (simulating controlled hand walking) at the same speed, frequency, and duration. Thoracic and pelvic limb ground reaction forces, thoracic limb kinematics, a...
Kawai M, Aida H, Hiraga A, Miyata H.Although satellite cells are well known as muscle stem cells capable of adding myonuclei during muscle repair and hypertrophy, the response of satellite cells in horse muscles to a run to exhaustion is still unknown. Objective: To investigate the time course of satellite cell activation in Thoroughbred horse muscle after running to exhaustion. We hypothesised that this type of intense exercise would induce satellite cell activation in skeletal muscle similar to a resistance exercise. Methods: Nine de-trained Thoroughbred horses (6 geldings and 3 mares) aged 3-6 years were studied. Biopsy sampl...
King MR, Haussler KK, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Reiser Ii RF.To evaluate the effect of underwater treadmill exercise on static postural sway in horses with experimentally induced carpal joint osteoarthritis under various stance conditions. Methods: 16 horses. Methods: On day 0, osteoarthritis was induced arthroscopically in 1 randomly selected middle carpal joint of each horse. Beginning on day 15, horses were assigned to either underwater or overground (without water) treadmill exercise at the same speed, frequency, and duration. Two serial force platforms were used to collect postural sway data from each horse on study days -7, 14, 42, and 70. Horses ...
Couroucé-Malblanc A, Pronost S, Fortier G, Corde R, Rossignol F.There are a variety of reasons for poor performance in racehorses. Exercise intolerance has often been associated with subclinical respiratory abnormalities, and diagnostic aids are therefore used to enhance clinical detection. Physiological variables can also be measured in order to evaluate the metabolic reponse to exercise. This study evaluated the relationship between physiological measurements and upper airway videoendoscopy during a standardised treadmill exercise test and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cytology in control horses (good racing performance, n = 14) and poor performers (n = 2...
Scott R, Nankervis K, Stringer C, Westcott K, Marlin D.Water treadmill exercise is often incorporated into rehabilitation programmes for horses yet little is known about the biomechanical and physiological responses to water walking. Objective: To establish whether stride frequency (SF) reached steady state as a result of 6 introductory water treadmill sessions and then to investigate the effect of increasing water height on SF, stride length (SL) and heart rate (HR). Methods: Nine horses with no previous experience of water treadmills completed 6 sessions of walking for between 15 and 30 min. Each horse was fitted with a leg mounted accelerometer...
