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Topic:Diagnostic Technique
Diagnostic techniques in equine medicine encompass a range of procedures and tools used to identify diseases, injuries, or other health conditions in horses. These techniques include imaging methods such as radiography, ultrasonography, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), as well as laboratory tests like blood work and tissue biopsies. Each diagnostic method provides specific information that can aid in the assessment and management of equine health issues. Radiography is commonly used for evaluating bone structures, while ultrasonography is useful for soft tissue examination. MRI offers detailed images of both soft and hard tissues, though its use is limited by cost and availability. Laboratory tests can detect biochemical and hematological changes indicative of disease. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the development, application, and efficacy of various diagnostic techniques in equine veterinary practice.
Development and evaluation of real-time PCR assays for the quantitative detection of Babesia caballi and Theileria equi infections in horses from South Africa. A quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay using a TaqMan minor groove binder (MGB) probe was developed for the detection of Babesia caballi infection in equids from South Africa. Nine previously published sequences of the V4 hypervariable region of the B. caballi 18S rRNA gene were used to design primers and probes to target unique, conserved regions. The B. caballi TaqMan MGB qPCR assay was shown to be efficient and specific. The detection limit, defined as the concentration at which 95% of positive samples can be detected, was determined to be 0.000114% parasitized eryt...
Identification of cryptorchidism in horses by analysing urine samples with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Currently there are two common radioimmunoassay-based methods for the detection of equine cryptorchidism; one measures testosterone concentrations in peripheral blood samples taken before and after an intravenous injection of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) and the other measures plasma estrone sulfate. However, each of these invasive methods has its own shortfalls and neither gives unequivocal results. In this article a highly reliable gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) method is described based on the analysis of urine samples for the identification of cryptorchidism in horses,...
Comparison of four methods to quantify Equid herpesvirus 1 load by real-time polymerase chain reaction in nasal secretions of experimentally and naturally infected horses. The objective of the current study was to compare the performance of 4 methods to quantify Equid herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in nasal secretions from experimentally and naturally infected horses. Nasal secretions were collected on the challenge day and daily thereafter for 13 days from 4 experimentally infected horses. Additional nasal swabs were collected from 30 horses with clinical signs consistent with natural EHV-1 infection. Absolute quantitation of EHV-1 target molecules was performed using standard curves for EHV-1 and equine glyceraldehyde-3-phos...
Distribution and species-specific occurrence of cyathostomins (Nematoda, Strongylida) in naturally infected horses from Italy, United Kingdom and Germany. A broad scale study was carried out in 2008 to evaluate the distribution and species-specific occurrence of cyathostomin populations in horse yards from Europe. In total 102 properties and 3123 horses were included in Italy (60 yards and 1646 animals), United Kingdom (22 yards and 737 animals) and Germany (20 yards and 740 animals). Individual faecal samples were examined with a McMaster technique while pooled samples were subjected to the microscopic examination of in vitro cultured larvae and to a Reverse Line Blot (RLB) assay able to molecularly identify the most diffused 13 species of cyat...
Probing the calcium and sodium local environment in bones and teeth using multinuclear solid state NMR and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Despite the numerous studies of bone mineral, there are still many questions regarding the exact structure and composition of the mineral phase, and how the mineral crystals become organised with respect to each other and the collagen matrix. Bone mineral is commonly formulated as hydroxyapatite, albeit with numerous substitutions, and has previously been studied by (31)P and (1)H NMR, which has given considerable insight into the complexity of the mineral structure. However, to date, there has been no report of an NMR investigation of the other major component of bone mineral, calcium, nor of...
A comparative study of serological tests and PCR for the diagnosis of equine piroplasmosis. A total of 105 serum samples from endurance horses from different stables in Dubai were examined for the presence of antibodies against Theileria equi and Babesia caballi using immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). A TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect DNA of piroplasms in specimens of clotted blood or EDTA blood samples of the same animals. Out of the 105 serum samples, the IFAT detected antibodies against T. equi in 35 (33.3%) cases while the cELISA gave 34 (32.4%) positive results. Eleven (10.5%) o...
Equine herpesvirus type 1 quantification in different types of samples by a real-time PCR. Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is one of the major viral agents causing diseases in horses common worldwide. A variety of techniques, including PCR, have been used to diagnose EHV-1 infections. In this paper, an attempt of real-time PCR has been described, which uses specific fluorochrome-labeled TaqMan probes for detection of viral DNA. This method does not require post-amplification manipulations, thereby reducing the risk of cross-contamination. The assay was sensitive enough to detect EHV-1 sequences in different clinical samples, as well in mice neuronal cell cultures. The technique wa...
Seroprevalence survey of equine Lyme borreliosis in France and in sub-Saharan Africa. A precise assessment of the epidemiological extent of equine Lyme disease is not well established in metropolitan France, French Guiana, and Africa (Chad, Djibouti, Ivory Coast, Gabon, and Democratic Republic of Congo). Blood samples were obtained from 570 horses. The samples were tested for Borrelia burgdorferi infection by a commercial ELISA Dot-Blot method (SNAP 4 Dx; IDEXX S. Laboratory). Lyme disease antibodies were only detected in metropolitan France, specifically in the eastern and center-western regions (48% and 31%). The geographical distribution of the disease follows the distributi...
Spinal kinematics in horses with induced back pain. Back problems are important contributors to poor performance in sport horses. It has been shown that kinematic analysis can differentiate horses with back problems from asymptomatic horses. The underlying mechanism can, however, only be identified in a uniform, experimental setting. Our aim was to determine if induction of back pain in a well-defined site would result in a consistent change in back movement. Back kinematics were recorded at a walk and trot on a treadmill. Unilateral back pain was then induced by injecting lactic acid into the left longissimus dorsi muscle. Additional measureme...
Case report: Repair of a type IV Monteggia fracture in a foal. A Monteggia fracture is a humero-radial luxation combined with a fracture of the ulna. It is a rare injury, infrequently reported in the horse. This case report describes the surgical repair of such a fracture in a 4-month-old filly.
Development and evaluation of one-step TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-PCR assays targeting nucleoprotein, matrix, and hemagglutinin genes of equine influenza virus. The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate new TaqMan real-time reverse transcription-PCR (rRT-PCR) assays by the use of the minor groove binding probe to detect a wide range of equine influenza virus (EIV) strains comprising both subtypes of the virus (H3N8 and H7N7). A total of eight rRT-PCR assays were developed, targeting the nucleoprotein (NP), matrix (M), and hemagglutinin (HA) genes of the two EIV subtypes. None of the eight assays cross-reacted with any of the other known equine respiratory viruses. Three rRT-PCR assays (EqFlu NP, M, and HA3) which can detect strains of th...
Ultrasonography of bovine urinary tract disorders. Ultrasonography is a helpful diagnostic tool in cattle with urinary tract disorders. It can be used to diagnose pyelonephritis, urolithiasis, hydronephrosis, renal cysts, renal tumors, amyloidosis, cystitis, bladder paralysis, bladder rupture, bladder neoplasms, and, occasionally, nephrosis, glomerulonephritis, and embolic nephritis. This article describes the anatomy, scanning technique, indications, limitations, normal and pathologic sonographic appearance of the bovine urinary tract. References from horses and humans are included, especially when the sonographic findings in these species ma...
Determination of cardiac output in neonatal foals by ultrasound velocity dilution and its comparison to the lithium dilution method. To compare cardiac output (CO) measured by use of lithium dilution (LiDCO) and ultrasound velocity dilution (UDCO) in conditions of high, intermediate, and low CO in anesthetized foals. Methods: Original prospective study. Methods: University teaching hospital. Methods: Six foals 1-3 days of age (38-45 kg). Methods: Neonatal foals were anesthetized and instrumented to measure direct blood pressure, heart rate, arterial blood gases, and CO. The CO was measured by use of LiDCO and UDCO techniques. Measurements were obtained from each foal at baseline and during low, intermediate, and high CO sta...
Prevalence of pharyngeal, laryngeal and tracheal disorders in thoroughbred racehorses, and effect on performance. Endoscopic examinations were performed on 1005 thoroughbred racehorses in South Africa a mean (sd) 24 (12.3) minutes after racing, to determine the prevalence of pharyngeal, laryngeal and tracheal disorders, and to determine the relationship of these disorders with performance (number of wins and placed finishes). Overall, there was a low prevalence of grade 2 and 3 laryngeal function (LF) (2.2 per cent), grade 4 LF (0.6 per cent), epiglottic entrapment (1.3 per cent), subepiglottic cyst (0.2 per cent) and epiglottic deformity (0.6 per cent), while a higher prevalence of grade 2 to 4 pharyngea...
Structural and functional-annotation of an equine whole genome oligoarray. The horse genome is sequenced, allowing equine researchers to use high-throughput functional genomics platforms such as microarrays; next-generation sequencing for gene expression and proteomics. However, for researchers to derive value from these functional genomics datasets, they must be able to model this data in biologically relevant ways; to do so requires that the equine genome be more fully annotated. There are two interrelated types of genomic annotation: structural and functional. Structural annotation is delineating and demarcating the genomic elements (such as genes, promoters, and ...
Arthroscopic visualisation of the third metacarpal and metatarsal condyles in the horse. Arthroscopy of the fetlock joints is a routine surgical procedure in the horse. It is unclear how much of the articular surface of the condyles of the metacarpal (MCIII)/metatarsal (MTIII) bone can be visualised using either the dorsal or palmar/plantar arthroscopic approach. Objective: To investigate which part of the articular surface of the MCIII/MTIII condyles of the fetlock joints can be evaluated arthroscopically using: 1) dorsal approach in combination with flexion; 2) standard palmar/plantar approach; or 3) additional portal at the base of the sesamoid bone with joint extension. Method...
Nuclear scintigraphic assessment of the thoracolumbar synovial intervertebral articulations. The results of nuclear scintigraphic examination of the thoracolumbar synovial intervertebral articulations (facet joints) have to date been poorly documented. Objective: To establish an objective scintigraphic grading system for the facet joints; to investigate the relationship between the presence or absence of clinical signs of back pain and increased radiopharmaceutical uptake (IRU); and to compare the results of scintigraphy and radiography. Methods: Nuclear scintigraphic images of the 13th thoracic (T13) to first lumbar (L1) vertebrae were graded subjectively (visual assessment of the im...
Transverse stress fracture of the distal diaphysis of the third metacarpus in six Thoroughbred racehorses. Fractures involving the fetlock region are encountered commonly in Thoroughbred racehorses. Condylar fractures of the distal metacarpus/metatarsus and mid-sagittal fractures of the proximal phalanx account for the majority of fetlock injuries during both racing and training and clinical features, management and outcome of these injuries have been well described. Transverse fractures of the distal diaphysis of the third metacarpus, however, are seldom observed and have received little attention in the literature. This paper describes clinical and radiological findings associated with 6 cases en...
Radiographic retrospective study of the caudal cervical articular process joints in the horse. Arthropathy of the caudal cervical articular process joints (APJs) in the horse is documented as a cause of ataxia and paresis secondary to spinal cord compression. Enlargement of the caudal APJs is reported to increase with age, but there are no known associations of any other factors. No association of the degree of APJ enlargement with neurological signs seen has been documented. This study investigated the associations of cervical APJ enlargement at the C5-C6 and C6-C7 articulations with case subject details (breed, age, sex, usage) and clinical signs. Objective: To ascertain if there are ...
Anaesthetic and cardiorespiratory effects of propofol at 10% for induction and 1% for maintenance of anaesthesia in horses. Studies have demonstrated the clinical usefulness of propofol for anaesthesia in horses but the use of a concentrated solution requires further investigation. Objective: To determine the anaesthetic and cardiorespiratory responses to a bolus injection of 10% propofol solution in mature horses. Methods: Three randomised crossover experimental trials were completed. Trial 1: 6 horses were selected randomly to receive 10% propofol (2, 4 or 8 mg/kg bwt i.v.). Trial 2: 6 horses received 1.1 mg/kg bwt i.v. xylazine before being assigned at random to receive one of 5 different doses (1-5 mg/kg bwt) o...
A zoonotic genotype of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in horses. This is the first report of Enterocytozoon bieneusi in an equid species. Feces from 195 horses from 4 locations in Colombia were examined for E. bieneusi by polymerase chain reaction. Of these, 21 horses (10.8%) were found positive for E. bieneusi . The prevalence of E. bieneusi in horses 1 yr of age (2.5%). No significant differences in prevalence were observed between male (13.7%) and female horses (9%). Sequencing of the internal transcribed spacer region of the SSUrRNA locus identified 3 genotypes. Two genotypes appear to be unique to horses and were named Horse 1 and Horse 2. A third geno...
Evaluation of endotoxin activity in blood measured via neutrophil chemiluminescence in healthy horses and horses with colic. To evaluate the performance of a chemiluminescent endotoxin activity assay in horses with colic and healthy horses. Methods: 20 horses with colic and systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS group), 8 horses with colic with no SIRS (NSIRS group), and 20 healthy horses. Methods: Venous blood was collected into EDTA blood collection tubes after completion of a physical examination, and a chemiluminescent endotoxin activity assay was performed within 60 minutes of collection. Medical or surgical interventions and outcome were recorded for each horse. Results: Mean + or - SE endotoxin activit...
Extrapulmonary disorders associated with Rhodococcus equi infection in foals: 150 cases (1987-2007). To describe frequency, types, and clinical outcomes of extrapulmonary disorders (EPDs) in foals in which Rhodococcus equi infection was diagnosed, and to identify factors determined at the time of admission that differentiated foals that developed EPDs from foals with R equi infection identified only in the lungs. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 150 foals aged 3 weeks to 6 months with a diagnosis of R equi infection. Methods: Medical records were reviewed for information on date of admission, signalment, history, clinical signs, diagnostic testing, treatment, duration of hospitali...
Radiographic quantification of tracheal dimensions of the normal Thoroughbred horse. Radiographic measurement of tracheal dimensions in the horse may be useful in evaluating upper and lower respiratory tract conditions due to the gradient of pressure changes between these areas. Lateral radiographs of the trachea of 15 normal sedated Thoroughbred horses were made at inspiration and expiration and magnification-corrected mean airway heights measured were, respectively: larynx: 5.89 and 5.86 cm; trachea at the third cervical vertebra (C3): 4.17 and 4.04cm; at the fifth cervical vertebra (C5): 3.62 and 3.59 cm; at the first thoracic vertebra (T1): 3.4 and 3.23cm; and carina: 3.85...
The pattern of embryonic fixation and its relationship to pregnancy loss in thoroughbred mares. Ultrasonographic pregnancy records of 195 mares from six Thoroughbred stud farms, over a period of 7 years were retrospectively analysed to assess the effect of various factors on embryonic vesicle (EV) fixation pattern and pregnancy outcome. Of the total of 746 pregnancies analysed, significantly (p < 0.01) more EV fixations were evident in the right uterine horn than in the left (53.35% vs 46.65% respectively). There was no significant effect of either, the side of ovulation, or age of the mare, on the side of EV fixation. However, EV fixation, was significantly (p < 0.001) more likely...
Field evaluation of an equine influenza ELISA used in New South Wales during the 2007 Australian outbreak response. During the Australian epidemic of equine influenza in 2007, tens of thousands of horses were infected. From the resulting field data, 475 known infected and 1323 uninfected horses were identified to allow a post outbreak evaluation of the performance of the commonly used bELISA for influenza A under field conditions. A variety of techniques, such as ROC plots, area under the curve and hypothesis testing were used to assess the overall performance of the test. The test was deemed to be accurate (area under curve=0.993+/-0.003 standard error) and significantly informative (z=-32.0; p or =50) wer...
Effects of fecal collection and storage factors on strongylid egg counts in horses. Fecal analyses are becoming increasingly important for equine establishments as a means of parasite surveillance and detection of anthelmintic resistance. Although several studies have evaluated various egg counting techniques, little is known about the quantitative effects of pre-analytic factors such as collection and storage of fecal samples. This study evaluated the effects of storage temperature, storage time and airtight versus open-air storage on fecal egg counts. The experimental protocols were replicated in two study locations: Copenhagen, Denmark and Athens, Georgia, USA. In both loc...
Endoscope-guided balloon sinuplasty of the equine nasomaxillary opening. To describe and evaluate an endoscope-guided balloon sinuplasty technique for dilation of the equine nasomaxillary opening (NMO). Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Equine cadaver heads (n=5); Quarter Horses (n=4). Methods: A custom rigid balloon introducer was passed into position within the NMO at the caudal recess of the middle meatus. Under endoscopic guidance, a balloon catheter was passed via the introducer into the NMO and inflated to 6 atmospheres, for 30 seconds 3 times, to dilate the NMO. Drainage rates after sinuplasty were evaluated for the caudal maxillary sinus in 5 cadaver he...
