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Topic:Epidemiology
Epidemiology in horses involves the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states and events in equine populations. It encompasses the investigation of patterns, causes, and effects of diseases and health conditions within horse populations. This field of study aims to identify risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Key components of equine epidemiology include disease surveillance, outbreak investigation, and the study of disease dynamics within herds or regions. Research in this area often focuses on infectious diseases, zoonotic diseases, and the impact of environmental factors on equine health. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of epidemiology in horses, including disease prevalence, transmission pathways, and strategies for disease prevention and control.
First evidence of exposure to West Nile Virus in horses within Denmark, 2025. A nationwide serological screening of 822 horses was conducted in Autumn 2025 to investigate potential exposure to West Nile Virus (WNV) within Denmark. Serum samples were tested for antibodies against WNV, tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and Usutu virus (USUV). Four horses without any history of travel outside of Denmark, or previous vaccination against WNV, tested positive for WNV neutralising antibodies. The results support local exposure to WNV indicating that virus infected mosquitoes have been present in Denmark and underline the usefulness of horses as sentinels for the risk of hum...
Equine cyathostomins-Hidden histories. Cyathostomins (also known as small strongyles or small redworms) are ubiquitous parasites of equids. They are found in a wide range of climatic regions, and inhabit the large intestine of their hosts. While infections are often sub-clinical, clinical consequences ranging from chronic to acute, and most notably, acute larval cyathostominosis, can occur in specific circumstances. Control of cyathostomin infection is complicated by widespread drug resistance. This Chapter provides a broad review of cyathostomin biology and host-parasite relationships, and also highlights significant knowledge gap...
Screening Equine Skin and Mucous Membranes for Carriage of Coagulase-Positive Staphylococci. Commensal populations of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus spp. (CoPS) in healthy horses are not well-defined. Objective: To determine the point prevalence, anatomical distribution, antimicrobial susceptibility and genomic characteristics of CoPS in healthy horses. Methods: One-hundred and fifty privately owned, systemically healthy horses from seven facilities were enrolled in this study. Methods: Horses were sampled from the nares, buccal mucosa and three skin sites. Isolates were identified using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and antimicrobial...
Intermittent shedding dynamics of EHV-1 across biological matrices during a natural outbreak linked to international equestrian events. Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) outbreaks associated with international equestrian events have demonstrated the capacity of this virus for rapid transboundary dissemination. However, detailed longitudinal data integrating viral shedding across multiple biological matrices within the same animals during naturally occurring outbreaks remain limited. In this study, ten horses hospitalized during a naturally occurring EHV-1 outbreak linked to an international jumping competition were monitored for 10-12 days, from which 306 nasal, ocular, urine and faecal samples were obtained and analysed by qu...
Leptospira in Working Horses From Rural Ecuador: A Neglected Occupational Risk. Neglected tropical zoonotic diseases such as leptospirosis continue to have a significant impact on animal and human health, especially in low-income countries due to limitations in surveillance and knowledge gaps to guide mitigation. In this context, equines have the potential to play an important role in the maintenance and transmission of spp. due to their susceptibility to a variety of serovars (often without signs of disease) and close contact with humans. To better understand the epidemiological role of horses, we evaluated exposure and identified circulating leptospires by collecting b...
First serological evidence of circulation of equine rhinitis A virus and molecular detection of equine rhinitis B virus in horses in North Africa. Equine rhinitis A virus (ERAV) and equine rhinitis B virus (ERBV) are major respiratory pathogens of horses with a global distribution. The aim of this study was to evaluate, for the first time in Algeria, the seroprevalence of ERAV antibodies, and to investigate a wide range of equine viruses (EIV, EHV-1, EHV-4, ERAV and ERBV). A total of 298 serum samples were collected between May 2022 and October 2023, from 11 provinces. Serological analysis for the presence of ERAV was performed using the complement fixation test (CFT). Our results revealed that 16.8% (50/298) samples tested positive for ...
Glandular gastric disease prevalence in equids (horses, donkeys, and mules) and other gastric findings: post-mortem comparative study. Equine glandular gastric disease (EGGD) has limited prevalence studies and scarce understanding of the predisposing factors and pathophysiological mechanisms involved. The objectives of this study were to determine and compare the post-mortem prevalence of EGGD and other gastric lesions in Colombian equids, specifically horses, donkeys, and mules. The study utilized a sample of 300 equids stomachs, with 100 specimens from each group, collected immediately after slaughter. The post-mortem examination included a thorough inspection of the ventral fundus, adjacent area of the margo plicatus, and ...
Rider dislodgement events in U.S. steeplechase racing: participation outcomes in riders and horses. Steeplechase jockeys compete in high-risk races requiring horses and riders to clear fixed obstacles at speed. Although rider dislodgement events are recognized hazards, their incidence and participation consequences are not well characterized. Methods: This retrospective observational study used publicly available race charts from United States National Steeplechase Association races (2023-2025). Dislodgement events were defined as falls or lost rider events. Incidence rates were calculated per 1,000 starts, and timber and hurdle races were compared using Poisson regression. Rider interruptio...
Prevalence and Genetic Characterization of Giardia duodenalis and Blastocystis sp. in Horses in Shanxi Province, North China. (synonyms and ) and sp. are prevalent zoonotic intestinal protozoans with significant public health and economic importance. Both parasites infect various hosts, including humans and most livestock. can cause infections ranging from asymptomatic carriage to clinical manifestations such as acute diarrheal disease, growth stunting and malabsorption, whereas sp. infection is often asymptomatic and its pathogenicity remains debated. Following the rapid expansion of modern equine industries (horse racing, equestrian sports, production, and tourism), concern about the spread of parasitic diseas...
Prevalence, molecular characterization and zoonotic potential of Cryptosporidium spp. in horses from diverse husbandry systems across four provinces of northern and eastern China. Cryptosporidium is an obligate intracellular zoonotic protozoan causing diarrheal disease in humans and animals globally. Horses have more frequent close contact with humans through equestrian sports, breeding, and cross-regional trade. However, comprehensive molecular epidemiological data on diverse equine husbandry systems in China are limited. We tested 412 fecal samples from horses across four Chinese provinces via small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). C. parvum and C. equi were subtyped using the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene, and C. andersoni ...
Prevalence and spatial distribution of Brucella spp. seropositive equids from the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. Brucellosis is a chronic infectious disease in equids, characterized by suppurative lesions in joints and bursae, with potential impacts on animal performance and public health. Objective: To investigate the prevalence and spatial distribution of Brucella spp. seropositive equids in the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. Methods: A total of 3,858 serum samples from 3,230 horses, 602 mules, and 26 donkeys were analyzed using the Buffered Acidified Antigen Test (AAT) and Complement Fixation Test (CFT), following Brazilian Ministry of Agriculture guidelines. Samples were obtained from all municipaliti...
Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in horses in the district of Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Gastrointestinal parasitic infections constitute a major constraint to equine health and productivity, particularly in tropical regions where climatic and environmental conditions favor parasite survival and transmission. In Côte d'Ivoire, epidemiological data regarding gastrointestinal parasites in horses remain limited, especially in urban and peri-urban settings such as the district of Abidjan. This study aimed to determine the prevalence, diversity, and associated risk factors of gastrointestinal parasites affecting horses in the study area. A descriptive and analytical cross-sectional st...
Epidemiological evidence of anti-Leptospira antibodies in horses at a global level (years 2015 to 2025): a systematic review and meta-analysis. Leptospirosis is a bacterial zoonotic disease with clinical consequences and potential sequelae in horses. Objective: To estimate the pooled global seroprevalence of anti-Leptospira antibodies in horses, detected with the Microscopic Agglutination Test, the frequency by serogroups and serovars, the geographical distribution of studies and the main reported clinical signs and organic manifestations through a systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods: A bibliographic search was conducted for cross-sectional epidemiologic studies published between 2015 and 2025. The risk of bias was determined...
Seroprevalence of Leptospira in Lavradeiro horses, a semi-feral ecotype from the Northern Brazilian Amazon. Leptospirosis is a neglected zoonosis with significant impact on public and veterinary health, with equines acting as potential maintenance hosts of infection. This study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of Leptospira in Lavradeiro horses under semi-feral conditions in Indigenous communities in the state of Roraima, Brazil. A total of 387 serum samples were subjected to the microscopic agglutination test (MAT), using antigens of Leptospira spp. from 18 serogroups. The overall prevalence was 15.8% (95% CI: 12.3-19.8%), with the most frequent serogroups being Australis, Tarassovi, Autumna...
Genomic diversity of multidrug-resistant Rhodococcus equi: novel sequence types, pangenome architecture, and phylogenomic evolution. Rhodococcus equi is a major cause of life-threatening pneumonia in foals under 6 months of age and an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised humans. Although common in soil and equine farm environments, its evolutionary dynamics, virulence architecture, and pathways of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) emergence remain poorly understood. This study integrated phenotypic characterization and whole-genome sequencing of 46 R. equi isolates from horses submitted for necropsy (n = 45) and equine fecal samples (n = 1) in Kentucky between January 2022 and December 2023 to define their resistance la...
First molecular detection of Theileria haneyi infection in horses in Southern Spain. Equine piroplasmosis (EP) is a tick-borne disease of equids caused by the hemoparasites , and . , a close relative of that causes mild clinical signs under experimental conditions, has been reported in several countries, adding complexity to EP ecology, diagnosis, and treatment. However, its presence in Spain remains unknown, which is concerning given the country's importance in equine genetics and international trade. Hereby, we investigated the presence of in blood samples from equids in Spain. Unassigned: Blood samples from 222 equids (218 horses, two donkeys, two mules) suspected of EP a...
Assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and preventive practices for equine Endoparasite control among livestock owners in South Gondar Zone, Northwest Ethiopia: A community-based cross-sectional study. Endoparasites are a major health concern affecting equine productivity and welfare worldwide. Understanding farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) toward parasite control is critical for designing effective interventions. This study assessed KAP levels among farmers in South Gondar Zone, Northwest Ethiopia, and identified factors associated with good KAP. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 150 farmers. KAP scores were initially categorized into three levels (low, moderate, and high) and analyzed using chi-square (χ) tests to explore bivariate associations....
West Nile Virus in Horses as a Sentinel Host in One Health Surveillance: Epidemiological Insights and Future Perspectives. West Nile virus (WNV) is a globally distributed mosquito-borne flavivirus with significant implications for both veterinary and public health. While horses are incidental dead-end hosts, their epidemiological role extends beyond clinical disease, as they can serve as effective sentinel hosts for detecting local viral circulation. Their frequent exposure to mosquito vectors, ability to mount measurable antibody responses, geographic stability, accessibility for monitoring, and the possibility of observation within managed owner-veterinarian systems make them particularly suitable for surveillan...
Molecular prevalence of equine herpesvirus type 1 and equine herpesvirus type 4 in thoroughbred and Arabian horse facilities in Türkiye. Equine herpesvirus-1 and -4 are contagious viruses causing respiratory disease and reproductive losses in horses. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of EHV-1 and EHV-4 in eight Turkish stud farms using RT-PCR analysis of nasal secretions, uterine fluids and aborted foal tissues. Deep nasal swabs were collected from 443 horses showing acute-onset fever and/or clinical signs of respiratory disease. Additionally, uterine swabs and tissue samples (lung, liver, spleen, thymus, kidney, heart) were obtained from 152 abortion cases. Among symptomatic horses, EHV-1 DNA was found in 2 cases (0...
Estimating the economic value of working donkeys in Ethiopia. There is limited empirical evidence on the quantitative economic contribution of donkeys to livelihoods, leading to their undervaluation and exclusion from policy. Here an enterprise budget analysis is embedded within a stochastic dynamic population model for three production systems in Ethiopia to evaluate system inputs, outputs and the economic contribution of donkeys. The model was parameterised using data from household surveys, focus group discussions and key informant interviews, supplemented by literature. The economic value of donkeys' (unpaid) homestead and agricultural services was e...
Seroprevalence of Orthoflaviviruses in horses in 3 different Algerian climatic zones between 2021 and 2023. Orthoflaviviruses are etiological agents of neurological diseases in equines. Horses are susceptible to equine Tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), Usutu virus (USUV), and West Nile virus (WNV), although mostly WNV has been associated with clinical disease. The aim of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of TBEV, USUV and WNV in 289 healthy horses from nine provinces of Algeria. This study was conducted between March 2021 and December 2023. Sera that tested positive, doubtful, or negative close to the doubtful threshold in the Orthoflavivirus-ELISA were further tested by the virus...
Isolation and Identification of Emerging Equine Encephalosis Virus Serotype 6 in Israel, 2023. Equine encephalosis (EE) is an arthropod-borne viral disease resembling a mild form of African horse sickness disease, which affects all species of equids. Previously, only EEV serotype 4 (EEV-4) caused sporadic outbreaks of the disease in Israel. In the summer of 2023, EE was clinically diagnosed in horses and donkeys in Israel. For laboratory confirmation, tissue cultures were inoculated with whole-blood samples obtained from sick animals. Five EEV isolates were successfully recovered in tissue and confirmed by conventional RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing of several viral genes. BLAST analysis ...
Outcomes and racing performance in thoroughbreds following a long-term injury sustained during a jump race in Great Britain. Limited literature is available about the career outcomes of horses sustaining a long-term injury (LTI) in a jump race. Methods: All Thoroughbreds that sustained an LTI, defined as any non-fatal musculoskeletal injury requiring a minimum 90-day break from racing, in a British jump race between May 2018 and April 2023 were followed up for at least 24 months and outcomes described. Pre-injury racing performance was compared between horses that did and did not return to racing, and post-injury racing performance was compared between horses that sustained tendon/ligament injuries and fractures. R...
Surveillance of equine glanders in India (2019-2023): Prevalence estimate, risk analysis and future strategy. Equine glanders, a notifiable zoonotic disease caused by Burkholderia mallei, continues to pose a significant health and regulatory challenge in India. This study summarizes the outcomes of a nationwide sero surveillance programme conducted between January 2019 and December 2023 to assess the distribution and temporal trends of glanders in equid populations. A total of 158,798 serum samples collected from 391 districts across 19 states and three union territories were screened using Hcp1-based indirect ELISA, followed by confirmatory testing through the complement fixation test. During the fiv...
An epizootic of equine viral arteritis at a Thoroughbred racetrack in Illinois: 223 cases. An epizootic of equine viral arteritis (EVA) occurred over an 8-wk period in the summer of 1993 at a midwestern Thoroughbred (TB) racetrack that ceased operations in 2021. Based on clinical signs, viral isolation, and serology, 223 horses (213 TBs, 10 lead ponies) were affected. Consistent clinical signs included fever (38.3-40.6°C; 101-105°F), depression, inappetence, and diffuse urticaria, including distal limb and preputial edema. Equine arteritis virus (EAV) was cultured from buffy coat samples from 24 of 28 acutely ill horses. Seventeen of 18 convalescent horses and 1 of 92 non-affected...
Establishment and evaluation of hematological and serum biochemical reference intervals in Chinese local donkey populations. Background: Reliable interpretation of hematological and serum biochemical test results in donkeys benefits from the use of population- and management-system-adapted reference intervals (RIs). However, standardized and CLSI-compliant RIs for Chinese local donkeys are still unavailable, limiting their clinical and epidemiological application. This study aimed to establish hematological and serum biochemical RIs for Chinese local donkeys using a large, multi-farm dataset, and to evaluate the effects of farm origin, age, and sex on these parameters. Blood samples were collected from healthy donke...
Risk assessment of West Nile fever in equines in Europe based on an ecological niche model. West Nile fever is a zoonotic viral disease transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, capable of causing severe neurological illness in humans, equines, and birds. Over the past dozen years, Europe has experienced numerous WNF outbreaks of varying severity, leading to significant public health and economic impacts. Consequently, WNF has emerged as a major concern for both public health and veterinary sectors. In this study, we employed spatiotemporal analysis techniques alongside an optimized ecological niche model to investigate the spatiotemporal distribution patterns of historical WNF outbreaks, pre...
Genetic diversity of Dermacentor nitens (Acari: Ixodidae) collected on horses from western Cuba. The tropical horse tick, Dermacentor nitens Neumann, 1897, has a wide distribution throughout the Neotropics, and is a vector of protozoan haemoparasites that cause equine piroplasmosis. Despite this, little is known about the genetic diversity of this tick species, particularly in Cuba, where horses are important domestic animals used in agriculture and for transportation. The objective of this study was to assess the magnitude of genetic variation in 115 D. nitens adults (57 females and 58 males) collected from horses in the Cuban province of Mayabeque using sequence data of two mitochondria...
CXCL16-associated genetic susceptibility to equine viral arteritis in export-bound horses from Spain. Equine viral arteritis (EVA) remains a relevant health and economic concern due to the ability of some infected stallions to establish long-term persistent infection with equine arteritis virus (EAV). Allelic variation in the CXCL16 gene has been identified as a determinant of susceptibility or resistance to the carrier state, positioning genotyping as a useful tool for risk-based reproductive and health management. Objective: To characterise the distribution of CXCL16 genotypes in export-bound horses from Spain and to assess the utility of CXCL16 genotyping for EVA prevention and control. Met...
