Exercise physiology in horses involves the study of the physiological responses and adaptations of horses to physical activity. This field examines how exercise impacts various systems in the equine body, including the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular, and metabolic systems. Researchers focus on understanding how these systems interact during different types and intensities of exercise, and how they contribute to performance and recovery. Key areas of interest include the assessment of aerobic and anaerobic capacity, muscle fiber composition, energy metabolism, and thermoregulation. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanisms of exercise physiology in horses, with an emphasis on performance optimization, training regimens, and the prevention of exercise-related disorders.
Horan K, Price H, Day P, Mackechnie-Guire R, Pfau T.Injuries to racehorses and their jockeys are not limited to the racetrack and high-speed work. To optimise racehorse-jockey dyads' health, well-being, and safety, it is important to understand their kinematics under the various exercise conditions they are exposed to. This includes trot work on roads, turf and artificial surfaces when accessing gallop tracks and warming up. This study quantified the forelimb hoof kinematics of racehorses trotting over tarmac, turf and artificial surfaces as their jockey adopted rising and two-point seat positions. A convenience sample of six horses was recruit...
Massányi M, Halo M, Mlyneková E, Kováčiková E, Tokárová K, Greń A, Massányi P, Halo M.The performance of sport horses is conditioned not only by the quality of its gene pool, but also by a large number of external factors. The most dominant being nutrition, quality of breeding, level of zootechnical care and the quality of the sports rider and coach. Important factor is the process of individuals' adaptation to the training load occurring during the training itself. This study was focused on the analysis of salivary cortisol levels as well as hematological and biochemical blood parameters in relation to load to which the tested horses were subjected. In the study 14 horses of s...
Hobbs SJ, Serra Braganca FM, Rhodin M, Hernlund E, Peterson M, Clayton HM.In the sport of dressage, one or more judges score the combined performance of a horse and rider with an emphasis on the technical correctness of the movements performed. At the end of the test, a single score is awarded for the 'general impression', which considers the overall performance of the horse and rider as a team. This study explored original measures that contributed to the general impression score in a group of 20 horse-rider combinations. Horses and riders were equipped with inertial measurement units (200 Hz) to represent the angular motion of a horse's back and the motions of a r...
St George L, Spoormakers TJP, Roy SH, Hobbs SJ, Clayton HM, Richards J, Serra Bragança FM.The reliability of surface electromyography (sEMG) has not been adequately demonstrated in the equine literature and is an essential consideration as a methodology for application in clinical gait analysis. This observational study investigated within-session, intra-subject (stride-to-stride) and inter-subject reliability, and between-session reliability of normalised sEMG activity profiles, from triceps brachii (triceps), latissimus dorsi (latissimus), longissimus dorsi (longissimus), biceps femoris (biceps), superficial gluteal (gluteal) and semitendinosus muscles in n = 8 clinically non-lam...
Crecan CM, Peștean CP.Objective gait analysis provides valuable information about the locomotion characteristics of sound and lame horses. Due to their high accuracy and sensitivity, inertial measurement units (IMUs) have gained popularity over objective measurement techniques such as force plates and optical motion capture (OMC) systems. IMUs are wearable sensors that measure acceleration forces and angular velocities, providing the possibility of a non-invasive and continuous monitoring of horse gait during walk, trot, or canter during field conditions. The present narrative review aimed to describe the inertial ...
Johnson MG, Adam E, Watt A, Page AE.Accumulating high-speed exercise has been identified as a significant risk factor for catastrophic injuries in racing Thoroughbreds. Injuries, regardless of severity, are a main cause of withdrawal from the racing industry, raising animal welfare concerns and resulting in significant economic losses. While most of the current literature focuses on injuries incurred during racing rather than training, the present study aims to help fill this gap. As such, peripheral blood was collected weekly, prior to exercise or administration of medication, from eighteen, two-year-old Thoroughbreds throughou...
Fazio F, Aragona F, Piccione G, Pino C, Giannetto C.Cardiac biomarkers are useful to identify cardiac muscle variations in human and equine medicine. The aim of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a bout of show jumping training on serum activity of cardiac and muscular biomarkers in healthy athletic horses to include cardiac troponin (cTnI), myoglobin (MB), aspartate amino transferase (AST), alanine amino transferase (ALT), creatine phosphokinase (CPK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Serum samples were collected from seven Italian Saddle horses (three geldings and four mares; 10 ± 3 years; mean body weight 480 ±70 kg), regular...
Acri G, Testagrossa B, Piccione G, Arfuso F, Giudice E, Giannetto C.The evaluation of the performance levels in athletic horses is of major importance to prevent sports injuries. Raman spectroscopy is an innovative technique that allows for a rapid evaluation of biomolecules in biological fluids. It also permits qualitative and quantitative sample analyses, which lead to the simultaneous determination of the components of the examined biological fluids. On the basis of this, the Raman spectroscopy technique was applied on serum samples collected from five Italian Saddle horses subjected to a standardized obstacle course preceded by a warm-up to evaluate the ap...
Sätter JK, McGawley K, Connysson M, Staunton CA.To identify how riding rein direction (left and right) and rider asymmetry affect tölt performance in Icelandic horses. Two horses were ridden in tölt by four riders on both left and right reins. Riders wore pressure insoles that measured the total absolute force (FAbs) and absolute force difference (FDiff) in their left and right feet in the stirrups. A 3D motion-analysis system recorded the degrees of side-to-side movement in the pelvis (RollP) and in the thoracolumbar region (RollT). Lateral advanced placement (LAP) and duty factor (DF) were calculated to determine tölt performance. One-...
Bou T, Ding W, Ren X, Liu H, Gong W, Jia Z, Zhang X, Dugarjaviin M, Bai D.Traditional Mongolian endurance training is an effective way to improve the athletic ability of the horse for endurance events and is widely used. This incorporates aerobic exercise and intermittent fasting and these altered physiologic conditions are associated with switches between muscle fibre types. Objective: To better understand the adaption of horse skeletal muscle to traditional Mongolian endurance training from muscle fibre characteristics and transcriptional levels and to explore possible molecular mechanisms associated with the endurance performance of horses. Methods: Before-after ...
Reisbig NA, Pifko J, Lanovaz JL, Weishaupt MA, Carmalt JL.Although the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is the major contact point between the reins in the riders' hand, the bit in the mouth, and the rest of the horse under saddle, the role of inflammation of this joint on equine locomotion and rein tension is unknown. Unassigned: To determine the effect of acute TMJ inflammation on rein-tension and horse movement when horses were long-reined on a treadmill. Unassigned: A randomized, controlled, cross-over design. Unassigned: Five horses were trained by one clinician to walk and trot on a treadmill wearing long-reining equipment instrumented with a rein...
Dyson S, Pollard D.The Ridden Horse Pain Ethogram (RHpE) was developed to facilitate the recognition of musculoskeletal pain. The aim of this study was to document changes in RHpE scores before and after diagnostic anaesthesia was performed to alleviate pain ± when the saddle was changed. One hundred and fifty horses underwent ridden exercise as part of an investigation of poor performance. The RHpE was applied before and after the interventions. Fifty-two (34.7%) horses exhibited a bilaterally symmetrical short step length and/or restricted hindlimb impulsion and engagement. Fifty-three (35.3%) horses had epis...
Takahashi Y, Takahashi T, Mukai K, Ebisuda Y, Ohmura H.Given that Thoroughbred horses' canter is an asymmetric gait, not only speed but also leading or trailing limbs could affect muscle activities. However, the muscle activity during a canter remains poorly understood. Hence, we aimed to investigate speed and lead-side (leading or trailing) effects on surface electromyography (sEMG) during a canter. The sEMG data were recorded from left Musculus brachiocephalicus (Br), M. infraspinatus (Inf), long head of M. triceps brachii (TB), M. gluteus medius (GM), M. semitendinosus (ST), and M. flexor digitorum longus of seven Thoroughbreds with hoof-strain...
Nogueira WA, Ferreira Padilha FG, Angelo Luiz M, da Silva Salomão N, Monteiro Fonseca AB, Reis Ferreira AM.This study aimed to analyze effect of physical exercise in hemogasometric and electrolytic profiles of young Mangalarga Marchador horses beginning training for gait competitions. Six Mangalarga Marchador gaited horses with 6 months of training were evaluated. The ages ranged from three and a half to five years and included four stallions and two mares, with mean (±S.D.) body weight of 435±30Kg. Venous blood samples were collected from the horses, rectal temperature and HR were measured before and immediately after the gait test, and blood samples were used for hemogasometric and laboratory a...
Tilley P, Simões J, Sales Luis JP.From previous studies, the International Society for Equitation Science has advised that further research be conducted on the physiological/psychological effects of less-exacerbated poll flexion angles. We aimed to evaluate the effects of two riding poll flexion positions with a difference of only 15° on the respiratory systems and behaviour of horses through an evaluation of dynamic airway collapse via over-ground endoscopy, the pharyngeal diameter, pleural pressure, arterial oxygenation and lactate, HR/RR, and the occurrence of conflict behaviours. Twenty high-level dressage and twenty show...
Ramsook AH, Dominelli PB, Angus SA, Senefeld JW, Wiggins CC, Joyner MJ.Studies of animal physiology not only provide valuable knowledge for the species in question, but also offer insights into human physiology. This thought is best highlighted by the 'Krogh Principle', which states "for many problems there is an animal on which it can be most conveniently studied". This graphical review focuses on three distinct stages of the oxygen transport cascade in which human exercise physiology knowledge has been enhanced by studies carried out in animal models. We begin by exploring ventilation, and the detrimental effects of cold, dry air on the airways in two sets of e...
Brito G, Damián JP, Suárez G, Ruprechter G, Trigo P.RHU is the oldest endurance sport in Uruguay. However, despite 80 years of racing, there are no studies to characterize this type of competition, explore rates and causes of death, and identify the associated risk factors. The aim was to characterize the Raid Hipico Uruguayo (RHU) competencies according to the distance (short (SR, 60 km) vs. long (LR, 80-115 km)), the causes of deaths, and the associated risk factors. The study population comprised horses ( = 16,856) that participated in RHU rides from 2007 to 2018. LR were more frequent than SR ( < 0.001). The average speed of winners was ...
Moshage SG, McCoy AM, Kersh ME.Density-modulus relationships are necessary to develop finite element models of bones that may be used to evaluate local tissue response to different physical activities. It is unknown if juvenile equine trabecular bone may be described by the same density-modulus as adult equine bone, and how the density-modulus relationship varies with anatomical location and loading direction. To answer these questions, trabecular bone cores from the third metacarpal (MC3) and proximal phalanx (P1) bones of juvenile horses (age <1 yr) were machined in the longitudinal (n = 134) and transverse (n ...
Bou T, Ding W, Liu H, Gong W, Jia Z, Dugarjaviin M, Bai D.The proportion of different muscle fibers is essential for the horse breed's aptitude for athletic activities. Adaptation of locomotor muscle is correlated with altered physiologic conditions. To investigate the adaptive changes of muscle fiber phenotype and transcriptome in horse skeletal muscle during dietary restriction (DR). The muscle fiber type distribution and deep RNA-seq analysis of detecting differentially expressed mRNAs (DEGs), miRNA (DEMIRs), lncRNAs (DELs), circRNAs (DECs), and their function analysis were investigated in gluteus medius muscle of Mongolian horses during DR. A tot...
Egenvall A, Engström H, Byström A.Equine back function is of concern to riders, as well as to veterinarians and physiotherapists; these groups may benefit from knowledge about spinal motion on the circle. This descriptive and comparative study aimed to quantify equine neck, back and pelvic motion in walk, trot and canter on a 9 m circle. Sixteen healthy horses in training, of varying breed and conformation, were measured using optical motion capture (150 Hz), with optical markers on the poll, withers, T15, tubera coxae and lumbosacral joint. Cervicothoracic and thoracolumbar flexion-extension and lateral bending, and pelvic ...
Pakula PD, Halama A, Al-Dous EK, Johnson SJ, Filho SA, Suhre K, Vinardell T.Exercise-induced hemolysis occurs as the result of intense physical exercise and is caused by metabolic and mechanical factors including repeated muscle contractions leading to capillary vessels compression, vasoconstriction of internal organs and foot strike among others. We hypothesized that exercise-induced hemolysis occurred in endurance racehorses and its severity was associated with the intensity of exercise. To provide further insight into the hemolysis of endurance horses, the aim of the study was to deployed a strategy for small molecules (metabolites) profiling, beyond standard molec...
Logan AA, Snyder AJ, Nielsen BD.The effects of gait and diameter have been studied independently, but rarely together in equine circular exercise studies. This study aimed to determine the impact of diameter (10-m or 15-m) at various gaits (walk, trot, and canter) on stride frequency or forelimb stance duration. Nine mature horses were outfitted with Tekscan™ Hoof Sensors on their forelimbs during circular and straight-line exercise at various gaits on a clay and sand arena surface. Statistical analysis was performed in SAS 9.4 with fixed effects of exercise type, recording, leg, and breed (PROC GLIMMIX, p < 0.05 significa...
Grzędzicka J, Dąbrowska I, Malin K, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O.Increased training loads in both human and equine athletes are generally implemented to improve their physical performance. These loads are tolerated only within appropriate training periodization with regard to recovery time. Otherwise, training overload causes failure in the systemic adaptation, which at first leads to overreaching, and progressively to overtraining syndrome (OTS). Exercise endocrinology, and anabolic/catabolic balance as an indicator of athlete performance status and OTS has continued to attract attention. In human medicine, changes in testosterone and cortisol levels, as w...
Lisboa BRF, da Silva JAR, da Silva WC, Barbosa AVC, Silva LKX, Lourenço-Júnior JB.In Brazil, the study on equine thermoregulation has not shown considerable advances, moreover, in the Amazon, this is a little explored aspect. This study aims to evaluate the thermoregulation of horses submitted to two methods of post-exercise cooling, in the climatic conditions of the Eastern Amazon. The experiment was conducted at Centro Hipico, Ananindeua, Para, for 15 days. Ten male horses, castrated of the Brazilian breed, aged 13 years and with an average weight of 482.3 kg were used. Equestrianism, which was exercised with pre-established protocol in the arena and track, for 30 min. Af...
Darbandi H, Munsters C, Parmentier J, Havinga P.Detection of fatigue helps prevent injuries and optimize the performance of horses. Previous studies tried to determine fatigue using physiological parameters. However, measuring the physiological parameters, e.g., plasma lactate, is invasive and can be affected by different factors. In addition, the measurement cannot be done automatically and requires a veterinarian for sample collection. This study investigated the possibility of detecting fatigue non-invasively using a minimum number of body-mounted inertial sensors. Using the inertial sensors, sixty sport horses were measured during walk ...
Carstensen H, Nissen SD, Saljic A, Hesselkilde EM, van Hunnik A, Hohl M, Sattler SM, Fløgstad C, Hopster-Iversen C, Verheule S, Böhm M, Schotten U....Atrial fibrillation (AF) is more prevalent in athletes, and currently, the mechanisms are not fully understood. Atrial fibrillation inducibility and stability was investigated in trained and untrained Standardbred racehorses. The horses underwent echocardiography for evaluation of atrial size. High-density mapping during AF was performed, and the presence of structural remodeling, as well as the expression of inflammatory and pro-inflammatory markers in the atria, was studied. Atrial fibrillation sustained significantly longer after tachypacing in the trained horses, whereas no difference in A...
White R, Nath L, Hebart M, Franklin S.P wave indices are used as non-invasive electrocardiographic markers of atrial remodelling in humans. Few studies have investigated their use in animals. The aim of this study was to measure P wave duration and P wave dispersion (Pd) in healthy standardbred horses and investigate variables that might influence these measurements. A 12-lead electrocardiogram was recorded at rest and P wave indices were calculated in 53 horses. A general linear model was used to investigate the main effects: age, bodyweight, sex, resting heart rate, presence of a murmur, exercise status and the number of years r...
Adepu S, Lord M, Hugoh Z, Nyström S, Mattsson-Hulten L, Abrahamsson-Aurell K, Lützelschwab C, Skiöldebrand E.We aimed to delineate a novel soluble Biglycan Neo-epitope-BGN262 in saliva from young reference and osteoarthritic horses in conjunction with the influence of short-term training exercise, riding surface hardness, circadian rhythm, and feeding on its soluble levels. Unassigned: A custom-made inhibition ELISA was used for the quantification of BGN262 in saliva. Cohort 1: A cross-sectional study comprising reference (N = 19) and OA horses (N = 9) with radiographically classified subchondral bone sclerosis. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to evaluat...
Trigg LE, Lyons S, Mullan S.The development of exertional heat illness (EHI) is a health, welfare and performance concern for racehorses. However, there has been limited multivariable assessment of the possible risk factors for EHI in racehorses, despite such information being vital for regulators to effectively manage the condition. Consequently, this study aimed to identify the risk factors associated with the occurrence of EHI in Thoroughbred racehorses and assess the ability of the risk factor model to predict the occurrence of EHI in racehorses to assist in early identification. Runners at British racecourses record...
Beghelli D, Zallocco L, Angeloni C, Bistoni O, Ronci M, Cavallucci C, Mazzoni MR, Nuccitelli A, Catalano C, Hrelia S, L쫌hini A, Giusti L.Intense exercise can cause inflammation and oxidative stress due to the production of reactive oxygen species. These pathophysiological processes are interdependent, and each one can induce the other, creating a vicious circle. A placebo-controlled blind study was carried out in show jumping horses (n. 16) to evaluate the effects of a commercial dietary supplement (Dolhorse® N.B.F. Lanes srl, Milan, Italy) containing Verbascum thapsus leaf powder (1.42%), Curcuma longa (14.280 mg/kg), and Boswellia serrata (Roxb ex Colebr) (14.280 mg/kg) extracts. Before and after 10 days of dietary supplemen...
McGowan C.Clinical pathology is frequently used in racehorses to screen for "fitness" to race and to screen for disease that may affect performance. The role of clinical pathology in exercise testing of racehorses is important, especially in the area of blood lactate responses to exercise. This article discusses the use of resting and dynamic clinical pathology in the racehorse, especially in respect to investigation of the state of training (or fitness) and detection of subclinical performance-limiting disease.
Jansson A, Lindberg JE.Most athletic horses are fed a high-starch diet despite the risk of health problems. Replacing starch concentrate with high-energy forage would alleviate these health problems, but could result in a shift in major substrates for muscle energy supply from glucose to short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) due to more hindgut fermentation of fibre. Dietary fat inclusion has previously been shown to promote aerobic energy supply during exercise, but the contribution of SCFA to exercise metabolism has received little attention. This study compared metabolic response with exercise and lactate threshold (VLa...
Richard EA, Fortier GD, Lekeux PM, Van Erck E.Any disorder impairing a performance horse's ability to ventilate its lungs and exchange oxygen compromises exercise performance in any discipline. Since bronchoalveolar lavage was described in horses in the early 1980s, laboratory evaluation of respiratory fluids, along with clinical and functional assessment of the respiratory system, has become a relevant step in the diagnosis of respiratory disease affecting performance. The aim of this review is to provide objective information to assist clinicians in interpreting laboratory findings by (1) summarising published cytological references val...
Marlin DJ, Scott CM, Roberts CA, Casas I, Holah G, Schroter RC.Whereas the efficacy of cold water cooling of horses has been demonstrated by several studies, the dynamics of temperature changes within and between compartments (primarily muscle, blood [core], skin and deep core [rectal]) have not been investigated. Changes in body temperature associated with cold water cooling were investigated in the hyperthermic horse. Muscle (TMU), pulmonary artery (TPA), rectal (TREC), tail-skin (TTSK) and coat surface (TCOAT) temperatures, were monitored continuously in 5 Thoroughbred horses during and after exercise in hot humid (30 degrees C and 80% RH) conditions o...
Davis MS, Williams CC, Meinkoth JH, Malayer JR, Royer CM, Williamson KK, McKenzie EC.To determine effects of exercise performed while breathing cold air on expression of cytokines and influx of neutrophils in airways of horses. Methods: 9 adult horses. Methods: In a crossover study, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was obtained 24 and 48 hours after each of 2 submaximal exercise sessions performed by horses while breathing warm (25 degrees C) or cold (-5 degrees C) air. Total and differential nucleated cell counts were determined for each BALF sample. Relative mRNA expression of cytokines in BALF cells was quantified by use of a reverse transcription-PCR assay. Results: Hor...
Cappelli K, Felicetti M, Capomaccio S, Nocelli C, Silvestrelli M, Verini-Supplizi A.Athletic performance is both a stress factor and an adaptive response to exercise that may be modulated by training, reduce inflammation and help prevent disease. Studies on the endocrinology of exercise and training have demonstrated the existence of an integrated metabolic network of hormone and cytokine regulation. Subsequent molecular studies have shown that repeated bouts of exercise may establish new basal levels of gene expression at rest. The Thoroughbred horse may be a useful 'exercise model' for inter-individual comparisons between subjects with homogeneous genetic and environmental ...
Mitchell KJ, Schwarzwald CC.Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis has been performed on ECG-derived data sets for more than 170 years but is currently undergoing a rapid evolution, thanks to the expansion of the human and veterinary medical technology sector. Traditional HRV analysis was initially performed to identify changes in vago-sympathetic balance, while the most recent focus has expanded to include the use of complex computer algorithms, neural networks and machine learning technology to identify cardiac arrhythmias, particularly atrial fibrillation (AF). Some of these techniques have recently been translated for...
Armstrong RB, Essén-Gustavsson B, Hoppeler H, Jones JH, Kayar SR, Laughlin MH, Lindholm A, Longworth KE, Taylor CR, Weibel ER.The purpose of this study was to describe the relationships between 16 physiological, biochemical, and morphological variables presumed to relate to the oxidative capacity in quadriceps muscles or muscle parts in Standardbred horses. The variables included O2 delivery (blood flow) and mean capillary transit time (MTT) during treadmill locomotion at whole animal maximal O2 consumption (VO2max, 134 +/- 2 ml.min-1 x kg-1), capillary density and capillary-to-fiber ratio, myoglobin concentration, oxidative enzyme activities, glycolytic enzyme activities, fiber type populations, and fiber size. Thes...
Greve L, Pfau T, Dyson S.Equine movement symmetry is changed when turning, which may induce alterations in thoracolumbosacral kinematics; however, this has not previously been investigated. Our objectives were to document thoracolumbar movement in subjectively sound horses comparing straight lines with circles on both reins and to relate these observations to the objectively determined symmetry/asymmetry of hindlimb gait. Fourteen non-lame horses were assessed prospectively in a non-random, cross-sectional survey. The horses were trotted in straight lines and lunged on both reins and inertial sensor data collected at ...
Soroko M, Śpitalniak-Bajerska K, Zaborski D, Poźniak B, Dudek K, Janczarek I.The aim of the study was to assess the effects of training on haematological and biochemical blood parameters as well as on the changes in body surface temperature in horses. In order to identify the predictive value of surface temperature measurements as a marker of animal's performance, their correlations with blood parameters were investigated. The study was carried out on nine horses divided into two groups: routinely ridden and never ridden. Infrared thermography was used to assess surface temperature changes before (BT) and just after training (JAT) on a treadmill. Seven regions of int...
Votion DM, Fraipont A, Goachet AG, Robert C, van Erck E, Amory H, Ceusters J, de la Rebière de Pouyade G, Franck T, Mouithys-Mickalad A, Niesten A....Limited information exists about the muscle mitochondrial respiratory function changes that occur in horses during an endurance season. Objective: To determine effects of training and racing on muscle oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and electron transport system (ETS) capacities in horses with high resolution respirometry (HRR). Methods: Mitochondrial respiration was measured in microbiopsies taken from the triceps brachii (tb) and gluteus medius (gm) muscles in 8 endurance horses (7 purebred Arabians and 1 crossbred Arabian) before training (T0), after two 10 week training periods (T1, T2)...
Slack J, Boston RC, Soma LR, Reef VB.Cardiac arrhythmias are a recognised but poorly characterised problem in the Standardbred racehorse. Frequency data could aid the development of cardiac arrhythmia screening programmes. Objective: To characterise the occurrence of cardiac arrhythmias in Standardbreds prior to racing and in the late post race period using a handheld, noncontinuous recording device. Methods: Prospective, observational study, convenience sampling. Methods: Noncontinuous electrocardiographic recordings were obtained over a 12 week period from Standardbred horses competing at a single racetrack. Electrocardiograms ...
Scoppetta F, Tartaglia M, Renzone G, Avellini L, Gaiti A, Scaloni A, Chiaradia E.Physical exercise induces various stress responses and metabolic adaptations that have not yet been completely elucidated. Novel biomarkers are needed in sport veterinary medicine to monitor training levels and to detect subclinical conditions that can develop into exercise-related diseases. In this study, protein modifications in horse plasma induced by prolonged, aerobic physical exercise were investigated by using a proteomic approach based on 2-DE and combined mass spectrometry procedures. Thirty-eight protein spots, associated with expression products of 13 genes, showed significant quant...
Maśko M, Domino M, Jasiński T, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O.Blood testing is one of the most important ways to improve performance, facilitate recovery and monitor the training of endurance and race horses. However, little is known about the physical activity-dependent changes of blood parameters in horses used for pleasure and in riding schools. This study aimed to perform routine blood tests for training monitoring of sport horses in three different horse types of use. Then the values of blood indicators were compared between school, endurance and race horses to find similarities in the physical activity-dependent profile. The study was carried out o...
Persson-Sjodin E, Hernlund E, Pfau T, Haubro Andersen P, Rhodin M.Detailed knowledge of how a rider's seating style and riding on a circle influences the movement symmetry of the horse's head and pelvis may aid rider and trainer in an early recognition of low grade lameness. Such knowledge is also important during both subjective and objective lameness evaluations in the ridden horse in a clinical setting. In this study, inertial sensors were used to assess how different rider seating styles may influence head and pelvic movement symmetry in horses trotting in a straight line and on the circle in both directions. A total of 26 horses were subjected to 15 dif...
Morrice-West AV, Hitchens PL, Walmsley EA, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC.Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) in racehorses are commonly due to bone fatigue, a function of the number of cycles (strides) and the magnitude of load applied to the limb. These parameters can be estimated using speed and distance, with greater than 6000 m/month at a gallop (>14 m/s), in combination with canter distances greater than 44,000 m/month, reported to increase fracture risk. Despite their importance, there are limited data on the distances and speeds horses are exposed to during training. Objective: Estimate training volume at different speeds undertaken by Australian Thoroughbr...
Williams CA.Oxidative stress is an imbalance of the oxidant-to-antioxidant ratio in the body. Increases in oxidative stress and changes in antioxidant status have been shown during endurance and intense exercise and eventing competition in horses. Antioxidants include vitamins, minerals, enzymes, and proteins that must be synthesized in the body or obtained from the diet. Therefore, exercise level and diet are both factors that play a role in influencing the oxidative stress and antioxidant status of the equine athlete. Along with exercise intensity and duration, diet, age, and training program can also a...
Nagahisa H, Mukai K, Ohmura H, Takahashi T, Miyata H.Hypoxic training is believed to increase endurance capacity in association with hypoxia inducible factor-1 (HIF-1), a modulator of vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A), and to influence activation of satellite cells (SCs). However, the effect of hypoxic training on SC activation and its relation to angiogenesis has not been thoroughly investigated. Eight Thoroughbred horses were subjected to normoxic (F = 21%) or hypoxic (F = 15%) training for 3 days/week (100% [Formula: see text]) for 4 weeks. Incremental exercise tests (IET) were conducted on a treadmill under normoxia and the ...
Snow DH, Harris RC, Gash SP.Four thoroughbred horses performed 4 gallops (G1-G4) with intervals of 5 min. With one exception, gallops were sustained at maximal speed over 620 m. Muscle biopsy samples of the middle gluteal and brachiocephalicus were taken before, during, and after exercise and assayed for ATP and intermediary metabolites. The results showed a major involvement of the brachiocephalicus, in addition to the middle gluteal, during galloping. In three horses, who were clearly fatigued, muscle ATP decreased by up to 50% by the end of G4. This was matched by an equal rise in inosine 5'-monophosphate. Pronounced ...
Leleu C, Cotrel C, Courouce-Malblanc A.The relationships between V4 (the velocity for a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol/litre) and V200 (the velocity for a heart rate of 200 bpm) and the performance indices of 223 healthy French trotters were analysed. They were divided into four age groups of three, four, five and six years and over, and into three performance groups (good, intermediate and poor performers) defined by the index of trot (ITR), an annual index of performance calculated by the national stud. V4 and V200 were assessed during the performance of a three-step standardised field exercise test, and four performance i...
Nissen SD, Weis R, Krag-Andersen EK, Hesselkilde EM, Isaksen JL, Carstensen H, Kanters JK, Linz D, Sanders P, Hopster-Iversen C, Jespersen T....Long-term exercise induces cardiac remodeling that potentially influences the electrical properties of the heart. Objective: We assessed whether training alters cardiac conduction in Standardbred racehorses. Methods: Two hundred one trained and 52 untrained Standardbred horses. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Resting ECG recordings were analyzed to assess heart rate (HR) along with standard ECG parameters and for identification of atrial and ventricular arrhythmias. An electrophysiological study was performed in 13 horses assessing the effect of training on sinoatrial (SA) and atrioventricular...
Kindig CA, McDonough P, Erickson HH, Poole DC.There is evidence that oxidative enzyme inertia plays a major role in limiting/setting the O(2) uptake (VO(2)) response at the transition to higher metabolic rates and also that nitric oxide (NO) competitively inhibits VO(2) within the electron transport chain. To investigate whether NO is important in setting the dynamic response of VO(2) at the onset of high-intensity (heavy-domain) running in horses, five geldings were run on a treadmill across speed transitions from 3 m/s to speeds corresponding to 80% of peak VO(2) with and without nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), an NO synthase in...
Wickler SJ, Hoyt DF, Biewener AA, Cogger EA, De La Paz KL.Different locomotor tasks, such as moving up or down grades or changing speed, require that muscles adjust the amount of work they perform to raise or lower, accelerate or decelerate the animal's center of mass. During level trotting in the horse, the triceps had shortening strains of around 10.6% while the vastus shortened 8.1% during the stance phase. Because of the 250% increase in metabolic rate in horses trotting up a 10% incline which is, presumably, a result of the increased requirement for mechanical work, we hypothesized that muscle strain during trotting would be increased in both th...
Clayton HM, Larson B, Kaiser LJ, Lavagnino M.This study investigated the horse's contribution to tension in the reins. The experimental hypotheses were that tension in side reins (1) increases biphasically in each trot stride, (2) changes inversely with rein length, and (3) changes with elasticity of the reins. Eight riding horses trotted in hand at consistent speed in a straight line wearing a bit and bridle and three types of side reins (inelastic, stiff elastic, compliant elastic) were evaluated in random order at long, neutral, and short lengths. Strain gauge transducers (240 Hz) measured minimal, maximal and mean rein tension, rate ...
Cywinska A, Witkowski L, Szarska E, Schollenberger A, Winnicka A.Serum amyloid A (SAA) is the major acute phase protein in horses. Its concentration increases in various pathologies but also in response to prolonged, strenuous effort. The purpose of this study was to establish whether routine race and endurance training produces changes in the SAA level in Arabian horses. Additionally, the differences between SAA response in experienced endurance horses and endurance horses that were beginning their career were investigated. Results: There were no changes in SAA concentrations after race training and endurance training in experienced horses. In horses that ...
Kitaoka Y, Masuda H, Mukai K, Hiraga A, Takemasa T, Hatta H.The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of training and detraining on the monocarboxylate transporter (MCT) 1 and MCT4 levels in the gluteus medius muscle of Thoroughbred horses. Twelve Thoroughbred horses were used for the analysis. For 18 weeks, all the horses underwent high-intensity training (HIT), with running at 90-110% maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max ) for 3 min, 5 days week(-1). Thereafter, the horses either underwent detraining for 6 weeks by either 3 min of moderate-intensity training (MIT) at 70% VO2 max, 5 days week(-1) (HIT-MIT group) or stall rest (HIT-SR group)....
Brama PA, TeKoppele JM, Bank RA, Barneveld A, van Weeren PR.The objective of this study was to document the development of biochemical heterogeneity from birth to maturity in equine articular cartilage, and to test the hypothesis that the amount of exercise during early life may influence this process. Neonatal foals showed no biochemical heterogeneity whatsoever, in contrast to a clear biochemical heterogeneity in mature horses. The process of formation of site differences was almost completed in exercised foals age 5 months, but was delayed in those deprived of exercise. For some collagen-related parameters, this delay was not compensated for after a...
Nagy A, Murray JK, Dyson S.Endurance is the fastest growing Féderation Équestre International (FEI) discipline and the large number of eliminations on veterinary grounds needs to be investigated. Objective: To document elimination rates and explore potential risk factors for elimination due to lameness or metabolic reasons in 9 countries representing 5 continents. Methods: Data for rides of ≥ 100 km ('elite endurance rides') in Australia, France, Italy, South Africa, Spain, United Arab Emirates (UAE), UK, Uruguay and USA were collected from the FEI website. Data were collected for all started horses on the country, ...
Munsters CC, van den Broek J, Welling E, van Weeren R, van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM.Eventing is generally recognized as a challenging equestrian discipline and wastage figures for this discipline are relatively high. There is a need for information that provides insight into the causes of wastage and withdrawal from competition, for animal welfare and economic reasons. The aim of the present investigation was to conduct a prospective study following the entire national selection of event horses (n = 20) and ponies (n = 9) in the Netherlands that prepared for the European Championship in 2010 (ponies) and 2011 (horses), noting causes of withdrawal and monitoring fitness using ...
Human movement scienceNovember 26, 2013
Volume 33 227-237 doi: 10.1016/j.humov.2013.09.003
Münz A, Eckardt F, Witte K.In dressage riding the pelvis of the rider interacts with the horse physically. However, there is little information about the influence of riding skill on the interaction of the human pelvis with the horse. Therefore this paper aims to study the interaction between horse and rider in professional riders (PRO) and beginners (BEG). Twenty riders rode in walk, trot, and canter in an indoor riding hall with inertial sensors attached to their pelvis and to the horses' trunk. Statistical analysis of waveform parameters, qualitative interpretation of angle-angle plots, and cross-correlation of horse...
