Exercise in horses encompasses the physical activities that horses engage in, either through natural behaviors or structured training programs. These activities impact a horse's musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems, influencing overall health and performance. Exercise can vary in intensity, duration, and frequency, and its effects are studied to understand conditioning, endurance, and recovery processes in equines. Research in this field often focuses on the physiological adaptations to different types of exercise, the prevention of exercise-related injuries, and the optimization of training regimens for various equestrian disciplines. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the physiological, biomechanical, and health-related aspects of exercise in horses.
Tranquille CA, Blunden AS, Dyson SJ, Parkin TD, Goodship AE, Murray RC.OBJECTIVE-To investigate effects of exercise on hyaline cartilage (HC), calcified cartilage (CC), and subchondral bone (SCB) thickness patterns of equine tarsi. SAMPLE POPULATION-30 tarsi from cadavers of horses with known exercise history. PROCEDURES-Tarsi were assigned to 3 groups according to known exercise history as follows: pasture exercise only (PE tarsi), low-intensity general-purpose riding exercise (LE tarsi), and high-intensity elite competition riding exercise (EE tarsi). Osteochondral tissue from distal tarsal joints underwent histologic preparation. Hyaline cartilage, CC, and SCB...
Trope GD, Whitton RC.A 12-year-old show-jumping mare was presented for investigation of a chronic hindlimb lameness of 16 weeks duration. Perineural anaesthesia and ultrasonography localised the lesion to the medial collateral ligament of the distal interphalangeal joint of the left hindlimb. Treatment consisted of a heavily padded distal limb cast for 6 weeks, strict box rest and a strictly regulated hand walking program. Serial ultrasonographic examinations were performed throughout the rehabilitation period. Collateral ligament desmitis of the distal interphalangeal joint is a commonly diagnosed condition of th...
Bouwman FG, van Ginneken MM, Noben JP, Royackers E, de Graaf-Roelfsema E, Wijnberg ID, van der Kolk JH, Mariman EC, van Breda E.The major aim of the present study was to investigate the proteome of standardbred horses at different stages of training and intensified training. We searched for biomarkers using small skeletal muscle biopsies of live animals. 2D gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry were successfully applied to investigate training-induced differential expression of equine muscle biopsy proteins. Despite the poor resolution of the equine genome and proteome, we were able to identify the proteins of 20 differential spots representing 16 different proteins. Evaluation of those proteins complies with adapt...
Faramarzi B, Thomason JJ, Sears WC.To quantitate changes in hoof wall growth and hoof morphology induced by mild exercise in Standardbreds. Methods: 18 Standardbreds. Methods: Horses were exercised at approximately 6 m/s (4,200 to 5,600 m/d) on 4 d/wk for 17 weeks. Both exercise (n = 9) and nonexercise (control group; 9) groups were housed in a large paddock throughout the study. At the beginning and end of the study, right forelimb feet of all horses were digitally photographed and underwent magnetic resonance imaging. Hoof wall measurements were obtained from the images to evaluate hoof wall growth and morphometric variables....
Eivers SS, McGivney BA, Fonseca RG, MacHugh DE, Menson K, Park SD, Rivero JL, Taylor CT, Katz LM, Hill EW.Intense selection for elite racing performance in the Thoroughbred horse (Equus caballus) has resulted in a number of adaptive physiological phenotypes relevant to exercise; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for these characteristics are not well understood. Adaptive changes in mRNA expression in equine skeletal muscle were investigated by real-time qRT-PCR for a panel of candidate exercise-response genes following a standardized incremental-step treadmill exercise test in eight untrained Thoroughbred horses. Biopsy samples were obtained from the gluteus medius before, i...
Minami Y, Yamano S, Kawai M, Hiraga A, Miyata H.To find a new parameter indicating muscle fitness in Thoroughbred horses, we examined time-dependent recovery of glycogen content and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+)-ATPase activity of skeletal muscle after intensive treadmill running. Two repeated 50-sec running sessions (13 m/sec) were performed on a flat treadmill (approximately 90%VO2max). Muscle samples of the middle gluteal muscle were taken before exercise (pre) and 1 min, 20 min, 60 min, and 24 hr after exercise. Muscle fiber type composition was determined in the pre muscle samples by immunohistochemical staining with monoclonal an...
Brama PA, Holopainen J, van Weeren PR, Firth EC, Helminen HJ, Hyttinen MM.There is ample evidence on topographical heterogeneity of the principal biochemical components of articular cartilage over the surface of the joint and the influence of loading thereon, but no information on depth-related zonal variation in horses. Objective: To study depth-related zonal variation in proteoglycan (PG) and collagen content in equine articular cartilage. Methods: Two techniques (safranin-O densitometry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) were applied to sections of articular cartilage from the proximal phalangeal bone of the metacarpophalangeal joint of 18-month-old Tho...
Brama PA, Firth EC, van Weeren PR, Tuukkanen J, Holopainen J, Helminen HJ, Hyttinen MM.Subchondral bone provides structural support to overlying articular cartilage and plays an important biomechanical role in osteochondral diseases. Mechanical features of bone correlate strongly with bone mineral density, which is directed by the loading conditions to which the tissue is subjected. Objective: To investigate the influence of physical activity levels on subchondral bone mineral density (sBMD) in foals during early development. Methods: Three groups of foals were subjected to different physical activity levels from birth until age 5 months. A proportion of these foals were subject...
Tinworth KD, Harris PA, Sillence MN, Noble GK.Insulin resistance and hyperinsulinaemia increase the risk of laminitis and horse owners and veterinarians should attempt to enhance insulin sensitivity in at-risk groups. In obese animals this may be achieved, in part, by promoting weight loss and increasing exercise, but such intervention may not be appropriate in non-obese insulin-resistant animals, or where exercise is contra-indicated for clinical reasons. An alternative approach to controlling insulin sensitivity in obese and non-obese horses may be the use of certain herbal compounds that have shown promise in humans and laboratory anim...
Kawai M, Minami Y, Sayama Y, Kuwano A, Hiraga A, Miyata H.We examine the muscle fiber population and metabolic properties of skeletal muscles from the whole body in Thoroughbred horses. Postmortem samples were taken from 46 sites in six Thoroughbred horses aged between 3 and 6 years. Fiber type population was determined on muscle fibers stained with monoclonal antibody to each myosin heavy chain isoform and metabolic enzyme activities were determined spectrophotometrically. Histochemical analysis demonstrated that most of the muscles had a high percentage of Type IIa fibers. In terms of the muscle characteristic in several parts of the horse body, th...
Zaneb H, Kaufmann V, Stanek C, Peham C, Licka TF.To assess differences in activities of back and pelvic limb muscles by use of surface electromyography (SEMG) in chronically lame and nonlame horses during walking and trotting. Methods: 12 nonlame horses and 12 horses with unilateral chronic mild to moderate pelvic limb lameness. Methods: On each horse, bipolar electrodes were attached to the skin over the midpoints of the right and left longissimus thoracis (Lot), semitendinosus (Set), biceps femoris (Bif), gluteus medius (Glm), and extensor digitorum longus (Edl) muscles. For each muscle, synchronous kinematic and SEMG recordings were made ...
Ichibangase T, Imai K.To extend the applicability of the fluorogenic derivatization-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (FD-LC-MS/MS) method, which consists of fluorogenic derivatization (FD), separation by liquid chromatography (LC), and identification by LC-tandem mass spectrometric (MS/MS) proteomic analysis, we applied it to Thoroughbred horse muscle. With the optimization of the protein extraction and separation procedure, reproducible chromatograms were obtained and the changes in protein expressions during exercise were able to be analyzed. To quantify the changed protein expressi...
Skiöldebrand E, Ekman S, Heinegård D, Hultenby K.The present study was designed to delineate the presence of COMP at the ultrastructural level comparing concentrations between two areas of articular cartilage from the equine third carpal bone, subjected to different loading, from trained and untrained horses. We also analyzed the fibril thickness of collagen type II in the same compartments and zones. Samples were collected from high load-bearing areas of the dorsal radial facet (intermittent high load) and an area of the palmar condyle (low constant load) in five non-trained and three trained young racehorses. The data show that COMP is muc...
Haggett E, Magdesian KG, Maas J, Puschner B, Higgins J, Fiack C.Exercise causes an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species, which can result in oxidant/antioxidant disequilibrium. Deficiency of antioxidants can further alter this balance in favor of pro-oxidation. Selenium (Se) is one of many antioxidant catalysts, as a component of the glutathione peroxidase enzymes. Soils and forages vary widely in Se concentration and a deficient diet can lead to sub-clinical or clinical deficiency in horses. Endurance horses are prone to oxidative stress during long periods of aerobic exercise and their performance could be affected by Se status. This stu...
McCue ME, Valberg SJ, Pagan JD, Essén-Gustavsson B, Roe CR.To compare effects of corn oil or a 7-carbon fat (triheptanoin) on acylcarnitine, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism in plasma or muscle of exercising horses. Methods: 8 Thoroughbred geldings. Methods: Horses received isocaloric diets containing 650 mL of oil (triheptanoin or corn oil)/d for 18 or 25 days in a crossover design with a 26-day washout period. On day 17 or 24 of each feeding period, the respective oil (217 mL) was nasogastrically administered; 120 minutes later, horses performed a 90-minute submaximal exercise test (SET). Blood and muscle samples were obtained before oil administr...
van den Hoven R, Bauer A, Hackl S, Zickl M, Spona J, Zentek J.The time-dependent changes in intramuscular amino acid (AA) levels caused by exercise and by feeding a protein/AA supplement were analysed in nine horses. Horses were submitted to a total of four standardized exercise tests (SETs). Amino acid concentrations were determined prior to, immediately after, 4 and 18 h after exercise. The experiment was subdivided into two consecutive periods of 3 weeks. In each period two SETs were performed. In the second period, horses were given a protein/AA supplement within 1 h after exercise. Significant changes in mean plasma AA levels similar to previous stu...
Freire R, Buckley P, Cooper JJ.It is unknown if different locomotor activities are equally effective at meeting the stabled horse's need for exercise and if they attenuate unwanted behaviour. Objective: Alternative forms of exercise influence the intensity of locomotor activities during a period of turn-out (the so-called rebound effect) and the occurrence of unwanted or undesirable activities during standard handling situations. Methods: Twenty-four horses kept in stables were randomly assigned to one of 4 exercise regimes (walker, treadmill, turn-out and riding) for 4 consecutive days. Because these forms of exercise prov...
Ferrari M, Pfau T, Wilson AM, Weller R.The influence of training on stride parameters is controversial and to date there is no information on how training influences stride parameters during high-speed locomotion in the field. Objective: To determine the influence of training on stride variables during high-speed locomotion in Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Speed, stride frequency, stance and protraction times were quantified in 8 Thoroughbreds with foot mounted accelerometers and GPS sensors during their first week of canter after the summer break and 6 months into training. Results: At a speed of 11 m/s, stride frequency was (...
Hubbell JA, Sams RA, Schmall LM, Robertson JT, Hinchcliff KW, Muir WW.Increased doses of detomidine are required to produce sedation in horses after maximal exercise compared to calm or resting horses. Objective: To determine if the pharmacokinetics of detomidine in Thoroughbred horses are different when the drug is given during recuperation from a brief period of maximal exercise compared to administration at rest. Methods: Six Thoroughbred horses were preconditioned by exercising them on a treadmill. Each horse ran a simulated race at a treadmill speed that caused it to exercise at 120% of its maximal oxygen consumption. One minute after the end of exercise, h...
Leprêtre PM, Metayer N, Giovagnoli G, Pagliei E, Barrey E.Measurements of minute ventilation (VE) and expired oxygen and carbon dioxide fractions (FeO2 and FeCO2) were measured at rest and during exercise in seven warmblood horses performing two consecutive standardised incremental treadmill exercise tests at submaximal speed, using the portable K4b2 telemetric unit and the laboratory Quark metabolic cart in random order. Oxygen consumption (VO2) and carbon dioxide production (VCO2) were estimated using the Haldane equation. There were no significant differences between the measurements made with the two devices. However, VE was overestimated when th...
Pollock PJ, Reardon RJ, Parkin TD, Johnston MS, Tate J, Love S.There are potential advantages to imaging the upper portion of the respiratory tract (URT) of horses during ridden exercise. With the advent of a wireless endoscope, this is now possible. However, there has been no detailed validation of the technique and findings have not been compared to ridden speed. Objective: To assess the combined use of a Dynamic Respiratory Scope (DRS) and global positioning system (GPS) receiver for examining the URT of a group of Thoroughbred racehorses randomly selected from a single flat racehorse training establishment. Methods: Horses were selected randomly from ...
Desmaizieres LM, Serraud N, Plainfosse B, Michel A, Tamzali Y.High speed treadmill endoscopy provides a true assessment and diagnosis of the dynamic obstructions of the upper equine respiratory tract (DO-URT). However, treadmills do not always allow reproduction of the exact conditions of dynamic collapse of the URT. The availability of on-board endoscopes, which could be used without a treadmill, would make exercising endoscopy readily available to more equine practices. Objective: To develop and validate an innovative endoscope which could be used for the examination of the URT at exercise in ridden and harnessed sport horses performing in natural cond...
Kinnunen S, Oksala N, Hyyppä S, Sen CK, Radak Z, Laaksonen DE, Szabó B, Jakus J, Atalay M.Several micronutrient supplementation strategies are used to cope with oxidative stress, although their benefits have recently been questioned. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of DL-alpha-lipoic acid (LA) in response to acute exercise and during recovery in horses. Six standardbred trotters were tested on the treadmill before and after 5-week LA supplementation (25 mg/kg body weight/day). According to electron paramagnetic resonance measurements, strenuous aerobic exercise increased significantly free radical formation in the gluteus medius muscle, which was prevented b...
Cappelli K, Felicetti M, Capomaccio S, Pieramati C, Silvestrelli M, Verini-Supplizi A.The stress response is a critical factor in the training of equine athletes; it is important for performance and for protection of the animal against physio-pathological disorders.In this study, the molecular mechanisms involved in the response to acute and strenuous exercise were investigated using peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Results: Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was used to detect modifications in transcription levels of the genes for matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) and interleukin 8 (IL-8), which were derived from previous genome-wide expression analysis. Signific...
Lindner A, Mosen H, Kissenbeck S, Fuhrmann H, Sallmann HP.The velocity at which blood lactate concentration ([LA]) of 4 mmol/L is reached (v(4)) is widely used to determine fitness, but there are few published data on using [LA] as a guide for the exercise speed for training in horses. In this study, the effect of 3 conditioning programs with [LA] guided exercise speeds on v(4), v(200) (speed at a heart rate of 200 beats/min), blood [LA], plasma FFA ([FFA]), and alanine concentrations ([alanine]), before and after exercise, as well as heart rate during exercise, of horses was examined. Six 2-yr-old Haflinger stallions underwent an initial treadmill-b...
Vail JD.There is increasing evidence that regular mental and physical exercise can enhance overall health and functional abilities in older adults. This article describes how a vigorous program of playing polo can provide important mental and physical benefits-even for older adults. In the present context of health care reform, it is especially important for health care professionals to recognize the value of exercise as an useful, cost-effective intervention for enhancing mental and physical health and to explore ways to encourage their older clients to adopt an enjoyable exercise program.
Nieto JE, Snyder JR, Vatistas NJ, Jones JH.To develop a protocol to induce and maintain gastric ulceration in horses and to determine whether gastric ulceration affects physiologic indices of performance during high-speed treadmill exercise. Methods: 20 healthy Thoroughbreds. Methods: Each horse was acclimatized to treadmill exercise during a 2-week period. Subsequently, baseline data were collected (day 0) and each horse began an incrementally increasing exercise training program (days 1 through 56). Beginning on day 14, horses were administered omeprazole (4 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h until day 56) or no drug (10 horses/group) and underwent a...
Bażanów BA, Chełmecka E, Romuk E, Stygar DM.Hucul and Arabian horses differ in the physiological constitution and exposition to environmental conditions. Oxidative stress plays a pathogenic role in many diseases and enables further injuries. The objective of this study was to compare the levels of enzymatic and nonenzymatic oxidative stress markers in Hucul horses living in seminatural conditions and in commercially handled Arabian horses. We tested the serum samples for total superoxide dismutase (total SOD), Cu-Zn-superoxide dismutase (CuZnSOD), and Mn-dependent superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) activity; for lipofuscin (LPS), ceruloplasmi...
Peham C, Licka TF, Scheidl M.To evaluate an adaptive-filter method for use in analysis of periodic electromyography (EMG) signals in which the transfer function of the filter is matched to characteristics of the signal. Methods: 15 adult horses without clinical signs of back pain. Methods: Electromyography signals of the left and right longissimus dorsi muscles, middle gluteal muscles, and triceps brachii muscle were recorded from horses walking on a treadmill, using bilaterally placed surface electrodes. A reflective marker was placed on the hoof of the left hind limb for simultaneous kinematic measurement of motion cycl...
Schryver HF.Bending properties of samples of cortical bone taken from the cranial, caudal, medial, and lateral quadrants of the midshaft of the radius, femur, and metacarpus of 12 ponies, 18 months old, were determined by 4-point loading at a rate of 10 mm/minute. The elastic modulus for all samples was between 16.2 and 20.2 GN/m2, and the ultimate breaking strength, between 204 and 255 MN/m2. There was greater variation in these properties between bone quadrants than between bones. Samples from the cranial and medial quadrants of both femur and radius were stiffer and had greater ultimate breaking streng...
Muñoz A, Riber C, Trigo P, Castejón FM, Lucas RG, Palacio J.This study investigated the effect of hypertonic dehydration on exercise in horses. Valencian draft horses (n=43) with hypertonic dehydration following water and food deprivation and competing in pulling events (COM), were compared to euhydrated horses (n=11) during a pulling exercise test (PET). Both groups were divided into bodyweight (BW) categories A (≤350 kg), B (351-450 kg), and C (≥451 kg), and pulled 2, 2.25, and 2.5 times BW, respectively. Exercise duration (ED) was 1.3±0.8 min. Heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature and blood samples were taken at rest, after exercise,...
Cole FL, Mellor DJ, Hodgson DR, Reid SW.The proportion of the horses, of both sexes and of different ages, breeds and levels of activity, owned by a stratified random sample of Australian owners, which had suffered one or more episodes of exertional rhabdomyolysis during the previous 12 months was determined. The proportion in the general population was 1.9 per cent, and horses which exercised were significantly more likely to have experienced the condition than horses which did not. There were significant differences between the sexes and between certain breeds and activity groups in the proportions of horses affected.
Moffat PA, Firth EC, Rogers CW, Smith RK, Barneveld A, Goodship AE, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, van Weeren PR.Conditioning by early training may influence the composition of certain musculoskeletal tissues, but very few data exist on its effect during growth on tendon structure and function. Objective: To investigate whether conditioning exercise in young foals would lead to any ultrasonographically detectable damage to the superficial digital flexor tendon or an increase in cross-sectional area (CSA). Methods: Thirty-three Thoroughbred foals reared at pasture were allocated to 2 groups: control (PASTEX) allowed exercise freely at pasture; and CONDEX, also at pasture, began conditioning exercise from ...
Beisser A, McClure S, Rezabek G, Soring KH, Wang C.To determine the incidence and anatomic location of and potential risk factors for catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries (CMIs) in racing Quarter Horses. Methods: Retrospective matched case-control study. Methods: 67 racing Quarter Horse racehorses euthanized because of CMIs and 134 matched controls. Methods: Data for Quarter Horses that sustained CMIs and the total number of race starts for each year were obtained from 2 Midwestern racing jurisdictions from 2000 through 2011. Information for each horse with a CMI and for 2 randomly selected control horses that ran in the same race but did not...
Pasquiet B, Biau S, Trébot Q, Debril JF, Durand F, Fradet L.Detecting fatigue during training sessions would help riders and trainers to optimize their training. It has been shown that fatigue could affect movement patterns. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) are wearable sensors that measure linear accelerations and angular velocities, and can also provide orientation estimates. These sensors offer the possibility of a non-invasive and continuous monitoring of locomotion during training sessions. However, the indicators extracted from IMUs and their ability to show these locomotion changes are not known. The present study aims at defining which kinemat...
Lucke JN, Hall GN.Blood samples were taken before and immediately after 80 km and 40 km rides held on consecutive days and analysed for haematocrit, blood glucose and lactate, plasma sodium, potassium, calcium, albumin, free fatty acids (FFA), glycerol, bicarbonate, insulin, cortisol, glucagon, urea, creatinine, uric acid, bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase. Unusually hot weather probably contributed to haemoconcentration with a significant (P < 0.001) increase in haematocrit and plasma albumin. A fall in blood glucose, with a rise in FFA and glycerol were consistent with long distance riding and were associ...
McCutcheon LJ, Geor RJ.Sweating responses were examined in five horses during a standardized exercise test (SET) in hot conditions (32-34 degrees C, 45-55% relative humidity) during 8 wk of exercise training (5 days/wk) in moderate conditions (19-21 degrees C, 45-55% relative humidity). SETs consisting of 7 km at 50% maximal O(2) consumption, determined 1 wk before training day (TD) 0, were completed on a treadmill set at a 6 degrees incline on TD0, 14, 28, 42, and 56. Mean maximal O(2) consumption, measured 2 days before each SET, increased 19% [TD0 to 42: 135 +/- 5 (SE) to 161 +/- 4 ml. kg(-1). min(-1)]. Peak swea...
Khumsap S, Clayton HM, Lanovaz JL.The objectives of this study were to measure the effect of walking velocity on net joint moments and joint powers in the hindlimb during stance and to use the data to predict these variables at different walking velocities. Videographic and force data were collected synchronously from 5 sound horses walking over a force plate at a range of velocities. Force and kinematic data from 56 trials were combined using an inverse dynamic solution to determine net joint moments and joint powers. Analysis by simple regression and correlation (P or = 0.30, r > 0.50) showed that, in early stance, there...
Reeta Pösö A, Hyyppä S.To test whether, in horses, the concentration of muscle glycogen can be influenced by increasing the uptake of glucose into the muscle cells or by providing a gluconeogenic precursor, 9 trained half-bred riding horses performed on a treadmill a 1.5 h competition exercise test (CET). Each horse performed CET 3 times and 30 min after CET, each was given one of the following solutions: isotonic glucose-electrolyte (GE) solution, GE supplemented with 50 g leucine (GEL) to increase insulin secretion, or GE supplemented with 200 ml propionic acid (GEP), a gluconeogenic precursor. Administration of G...
Findley JA, De Oliveira F, Bladon B.To determine typical clinical features associated with tears of the manica flexoria (MF) and prognosis for return to athletic function after surgical resection. Methods: Case series. Methods: Medical records (January 2001-December 2011) of horses that underwent tenoscopic surgical treatment of MF tears were reviewed and outcome obtained by telephone questionnaire of owners. Results: Fifty three horses (65 MF tears) were treated; 83% were cobs or ponies. Injuries occurred more frequently in hindlimbs (85%) and effusion of the digital flexor tendon sheath was associated with all MF tears. Follow...
Contreras-Aguilar MD, Cerón JJ, Muñoz A, Ayala I.Salivary biomarkers could be useful to evaluate stress, fitness level, and skeletal muscle damage associated to exercise in horses in an easy and non-painful way. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate if cortisol in saliva (sCor), salivary alpha-amylase (sAMY) and butyrylcholinesterase (sBChE) and lactate (sLA) and creatine kinase (sCK) in saliva of horses can show changes during a standardized exercise test, and if they are related to heart rate variability (HRV) parameters related to sympathetic and parasympathetic tone, fitness level or skeletal muscle damage. For this purpose, ten enduran...
Logan AA, Nielsen BD, Hiney KM, Robison CI, Manfredi JM, Buskirk DD, Popovich JM.Circular exercise is used in many equestrian disciplines and this study aimed to determine if circle diameter impacts juvenile animal forelimb bone and joint health. On day 0, 24 calves at 9 weeks of age were assigned the following exercise treatments: small circle (12 m clockwise), large circle (18-m clockwise), treadmill, or non-exercised control. Exercise was initiated at 1.1−1.5 m/s for 5 min/d and increased 5 min weekly until reaching 30 min/d. On day 49, synovial fluid was collected from multiple joints, cartilage was collected from the proximal surface of fused third and fourth metaca...
Restan AZ, Camacho AA, Cerqueira JA, Zacché E, Kirnew MD, Loureiro BA, Silva SB, Moranza HG, Ferraz GC.The dogs' responses to training exercise are seldom monitored using physiological variables, and cardiac autonomic regulation (CAR) is a relevant determinant of endurance-training adaptation. There are studies in the literature establishing that regular exercise could interfere with CAR in dogs, measured by heart rate and vagal-derived indexes of heart-rate-variability (HRV). However, few studies were found using a prescribed training program based on the lactate threshold (LT) to determine HRV by a 24-h Holter analysis. The purpose of this study was to test whether an endurance-training progr...
Park JW, Song KD, Kim NY, Choi JY, Hong SA, Oh JH, Kim SW, Lee JH, Park TS, Kim JK, Kim JG, Cho BW.Since athletic performance is a most importance trait in horses, most research focused on physiological and physical studies of horse athletic abilities. In contrast, the molecular analysis as well as the regulatory pathway studies remain insufficient for evaluation and prediction of horse athletic abilities. In our previous study, we identified receptor tyrosine kinase () gene which was expressed as alternative spliced isoforms in skeletal muscle during exercise. In the present study, we validated two alternative splicing transcripts (named as for long form and for short form) in equine s...
Gehlen H, Marnette S, Rohn K, Stadler P.The purpose of this study was to determine whether the combination of dobutamine and atropine causes cardiac stress equivalent to treadmill exercise. Therefore, electrocardiography and echocardiography were performed on 10 warmblood horses before, during, and after different cardiac stress tests. Stressors consisted of a standardized treadmill exercise and combined administration of dobutamine (7.5 microg/kg/min) and atropine (5 microg/kg). Maxima heart rates were achieved during the treadmill exercise (175 +/- 10 bpm). After exercise, a rapid decrease in heart rate was observed. Subsequently,...
Flick M, Vinther AML, Jacobsen S, Berg LC, Gimeno M, Verwilghen D, Howden W, Averay K, van Galen G.Serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (sNGAL) is a marker of renal injury, and its concentrations are affected by inflammation. Therefore, it could serve as a useful biomarker of disease or fitness in high-level competition. However, it has not yet been determined if sNGAL concentrations are affected by exercise. The aim of this study was to determine whether concentrations of equine sNGAL were affected by 1000 m galloping as the form of exercise used in the study. Pre- and post-gallop sNGAL, serum amyloid A, and creatinine concentrations were evaluated in 14 healthy Thoroughbred r...
Leutton JL, Lumsden JM.To investigate laryngeal function in cases of recurrent laryngeal neuropathy pre- and post laryngoplasty (LP) using dynamic respiratory endoscopy (DRE). Objective: To compare the rima glottidis area during DRE pre- and post LP; document all forms of dynamic upper airway obstruction (DUAO) pre- and post LP and investigate the relationship between post operative abduction at rest and exercise. Methods: Prospective case series. Methods: Thoroughbred racehorses with pre- and post LP DRE were included. Left-to-right arytenoid cartilage angle ratios and rima glottidis area ratios were used to quanti...
Katz LM, Bayly WM, Hines MT, Sides RH.Horses exercising at > or = approximately 90% VO2max develop arterial hypoxaemia with concurrent hypercapnoea, whereas ponies exercising at comparative levels become hypocapnoeic and maintain arterial oxygen tensions close to resting values. We sought to investigate the possibility that these differences relate to the ventilatory responses of these animals to exercise. Six Thoroughbred horses weighing mean +/- s.e. 501 +/- 27 kg and 5 ponies weighing mean +/- s.e. 164 +/- 18 kg exercised for 2 min on a 10% slope at speeds calculated to require 60% VO2max and for at least 1 min at speeds cal...
Matsuki N, Tamura S, Ono K, Watari T, Goitsuka R, Yamanobe A, Hiraga A, Kubo K, Takagi S, Hasegawa A.To understand the pathogenesis of equine exercise-induced myopathies and hemolysis, changes of phospholipid peroxidation products in the equine middle gluteal muscle and erythrocytes following the high-speed treadmill exercise were studied. In the skeletal muscle, the peroxidized phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) were increased at 24 hours after the exercise. The malondialdehydes (MDAs) were also increased as the protein-bound MDAs following exercise. In the erythrocytes, the peroxidized PE were significantly decreased at 24 hours after the exercise. The protein-bound MDAs were significantly incre...
Massie SL, Bezugley RJ, McDonald KJ, Leguillette R.The prevalence and severity of cardiac arrhythmias in healthy racehorses undergoing competition is not well defined. The aim was to characterize arrhythmias in Thoroughbreds participating in official Chuckwagon races and to determine normal beat-to-beat (R-R) variability during supramaximal exercise. Electrocardiograph (ECG) recordings were obtained during pre-race, race, and active-recovery from 82 clinically healthy Thoroughbreds. ECG recordings were analyzed for arrhythmias and mean percent R-R deviation. Plasma lactate and high-sensitivity troponin (hs-cTnT) were also measured. Fifty-two E...
Logan AA, Nielsen BD, Robison CI, Hallock DB, Manfredi JM, Hiney KM, Buskirk DD, Popovich JM.Circular exercise can be used at varying gaits and diameters to exercise horses, with repeated use anecdotally relating to increased lameness. This work sought to characterize mean area, mean vertical force, and mean pressure of the front hooves while exercising in a straight line at the walk and trot, and small (10-m diameter) and large circles (15-m diameter) at the walk, trot, and canter. Nine mature horses wore TekscanTM Hoof Sensors on their forelimbs adhered with a glue-on shoe. Statistical analysis was performed in SAS 9.4 with fixed effects of leg, gait, and exercise type (PROC GLIMMIX...
Art T, Franchimont P, Lekeux P.Ten horses underwent a standardised strenuous treadmill exercise test, before, during and after which measurements were made of plasma beta-endorphin and cortisol concentrations, blood lactate, glucose, haemoglobin and pH, the activities of creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase and aspartate amino-transferase, and heart rate, oxygen uptake and expired minute volume. The correlations between the exercise-induced response of beta-endorphin and the changes observed in the other physiological measurements were examined. There was a large variation in the beta-endorphin response of the horses to e...
López JR, Linares N, Cordovez G, Terzic A.Exertional rhabdomyolysis is a myopathy of unknown pathophysiology. We measured intracellular resting calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) by means of Ca(2+)-selective microelectrodes in intercostal muscle fibers from horses suffering from rhabdomyolysis, and from horses with no evidence of neuromuscular disorder. [Ca2+]i was several-fold higher in muscle fibers from horses suffering from rhabdomyolysis when compared to controls. Treatment of rhabdomyolytic horses with dantrolene, an agent that prevents Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, reduced [Ca2+]i toward control values, and acceler...
Gregg SR, Barshick MR, Johnson SE.Following strenuous exercise, skeletal muscle experiences an acute inflammatory state that initiates the repair process. Systemic hyaluronic acid (HA) is injected to horses routinely as a joint anti-inflammatory. To gain insight into the effects of HA on skeletal muscle, adult Thoroughbred geldings (n = 6) were injected with a commercial HA product weekly for 3 weeks prior to performing a submaximal exercise test. Gluteal muscle (GM) biopsies were obtained before and 1 h after exercise for gene expression analysis and HA localization. The results from RNA sequencing demonstrate differences in ...
Cappelli K, Mecocci S, Porceddu A, Albertini E, Giontella A, Miglio A, Silvestrelli M, Verini Supplizi A, Marconi G, Capomaccio S.With his bicentennial breeding history based on athletic performance, the Thoroughbred horse can be considered the equine sport breed. Although genomic and transcriptomic tools and knowledge are at the state of the art in equine species, the epigenome and its modifications in response to environmental stimuli, such as training, are less studied. One of the major epigenetic modifications is cytosine methylation at 5' of DNA molecules. This crucial biochemical modification directly mediates biological processes and, to some extent, determines the organisms' phenotypic plasticity. Exercise indeed...
Wong ASM, Morrice-West AV, Hitchens PL, Whitton RC.Catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries (CMI) in horses are associated with both too little and too much high-speed exercise. In order to advise trainers on training and management strategies that minimize the risk of musculoskeletal injury (MSI), a better understanding of how training practices affect MSI in racehorses is needed. Data from prospective studies relating training data and MSI are complicated by the gradual development of pathology and the effect of this on the ability of horses to train consistently prior to the identification of an injury. To circumvent this, 66 Australian Thorou...
Macaire C, Hanne-Poujade S, De Azevedo E, Denoix JM, Coudry V, Jacquet S, Bertoni L, Tallaj A, Audigié F, Hatrisse C, Hébert C, Martin P, Marin F....The assessment of lameness in horses can be aided by objective gait analysis tools. Despite their key role of evaluating a horse at trot on a circle, asymmetry thresholds have not been determined for differentiating between sound and lame gait during this exercise. These thresholds are essential to distinguish physiological asymmetry linked to the circle from pathological asymmetry linked to lameness. This study aims to determine the Asymmetry Indices (AIs) with the highest power to discriminate between a group of sound horses and a group of horses with consistent unilateral lameness across bo...
