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Topic:Nervous System
The nervous system in horses is a complex network responsible for transmitting signals between different parts of the body. It consists of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which comprises nerves that extend throughout the body. The nervous system regulates various physiological processes, including movement, sensation, and the coordination of bodily functions. It plays a critical role in processing sensory information and initiating appropriate responses. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structure, function, and clinical implications of the equine nervous system, including its role in behavior, response to stimuli, and neurological disorders.
Correction: An anatomical study of the subarachnoid space surrounding the trigeminal ganglion in horses-in preparation for a controlled glycerol rhizotomy in equids. [This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1424890.].
The effect of full-limb flexion tests on static and dynamic muscle activity and locomotion asymmetry in owner-sound horses. Flexion tests are commonly used in equine locomotion examinations to identify underlying locomotor issues, yet their neuromuscular effects remain poorly understood. Response variability raises concerns about their clinical value in lameness assessments and pre-purchase evaluations. Objective: Primarily, to investigate the effect of full-limb flexion tests on static (flexed position) and dynamic (subsequent trot-up) muscle activity. Secondarily, to assess their effect on locomotion asymmetry during trotting. Methods: In vivo experiments. Methods: Sixteen warmblood horses were randomly assigned ...
Tachycardia and muscle tremors following intravenous administration of detomidine to a horse undergoing standing surgery. Detomidine hydrochloride is an alpha adrenoceptor agonist that is commonly used in equine practice to provide sedation and analgesia for horses undergoing standing procedures. Reported effects following intravenous administration of detomidine in horses include bradycardia, bradyarrhythmias, transient hypertension, sweating, piloerection and dose-dependent sedation, ataxia and analgesia. This case report describes a novel response characterised by tachycardia and profound muscle tremors following the administration of intravenous detomidine to a horse undergoing a standing procedure.
Child horse harmony in motion: a preliminary study to explore heart rate synchronization in equine assisted therapy for neurotypical and ADHD children. Equine-Assisted Services (EAS) encompass a range of therapeutic interventions utilizing equine interactions to achieve therapeutic goals. This study explores heart rate synchronization between horses and riders during mounted and unmounted interactions, focusing on its potential implications for emotional regulation. A total of 25 participants aged 6-12 took part in the study, which included two groups: novice riders diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (n = 15) and experienced neurotypical riders (n = 10). Heart rate measurements were obtained using Polar Equ...
Salivary cortisol concentration in western performance horses and riders: Associations with performance. Competition stress is a common factor influencing the success of performing athletes. However, few studies have quantified the physiological stress responses in horses and riders surrounding an equestrian event. Objective: The objectives of the current study were to determine salivary cortisol concentrations (SCC) as an indicator of stress in fifteen horse and rider pairs competing in western stock horse events and to investigate the relationship between SCC and performance. Methods: Subjects included male and female Quarter horses aged 3-15 years and equestrians aged 18-22 years. Salivary sam...
Computed tomographic myelography of the cranial cervical vertebral column in unaffected Warmblood horses – comparison of transverse vertebral ratios in the flexed and neutral cranial cervical vertebral column. Computed tomographic myelography (CTM) is diagnostic for extradural spinal cord compression but knowledge about vertebral ratios from transverse images in flexion and normal position of unaffected horses is lacking. Objective: To compare the ratios of the cross-sectional areas (CSAs) of the spinal cord, the vertebral canal and of the contrast enhanced dural tube on transverse CTM images at C3-C4 in neutral and flexed positions in unaffected Warmbloods. Methods: CTM was performed in 13 neurologically unaffected Warmbloods in neutral and flexed cervical vertebral column positions. Ratios were ca...
Fibrocartilaginous Emboli in a 15-Year-Old Pony Mare. Fibrocartilaginous embolic myelopathy (FCE) was diagnosed in a 15-year-old pony mare by histopathologic examination of the spinal cord. The horse was euthanized and submitted for necropsy following focal seizures and lateral recumbency for approximately 12 h. Histopathology of spinal cord segments C5-C7 revealed severe ischemic myelomalacia with intravascular amorphous material that stained positive with Alcian Blue, consistent with cartilaginous matrix. These features in addition to the acute onset of clinical signs are characteristic for FCE. This case report describes the clinical and histo...
Chronic State and Relationship to Humans Influence How Horses Decode Emotions in Human Voices: A Brain and Behavior Study. Current research on acoustic encoding of emotional content suggests that there are universal cues, allowing for decoding within and across taxa. This is particularly important for human-animal relationships, wherein domestic animals are supposed to be particularly efficient in decoding human emotions. Here we investigated whether the decoding of the emotional content in human voices shared universal acoustic properties, or whether it could be influenced by experience. Emotional human voices were presented to two populations of horses, in which behavioral, cardiac, and brain responses were meas...
Impact of sequential administration of detomidine, butorphanol, and midazolam on sedation, ataxia, stimulus response, and bispectral index in horses. Standing sedation is a safe and cost-effective alternative to general anesthesia in horses, but challenges include achieving adequate drug effect to block the stimulus response without inducing ataxia or recumbency. A benefit of midazolam has been reported in equine dental procedures. Seeking synergy, a combination of lower doses of several pharmacologic agents, including midazolam, may improve the quality of sedation while minimizing adverse effects. Bispectral index (BIS) correlates with sedation scores in human ICU patients, but the correlation between sedation scores and BIS has not been e...
Pharmacokinetic analysis of bumped-kinase inhibitors in horses demonstrates their potential utility for prevention and treatment of equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. To determine the systemic and CNS distribution of bumped-kinase inhibitors (BKIs) in healthy horses, assess potential side effects, and identify a candidate compound for a clinical trial in equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) cases. Unassigned: 9 pharmacokinetic (PK) experiments were conducted from March 2021 through November 2024. Bumped-kinase inhibitors 1708, 1748, and 1841 were screened in Sarcocystis neurona growth assays and IV PKs, followed by investigation of a lead BKI compound by single-dose or multiday oral administration. Serial plasma collections were performed to assess syst...
Introduction of West Nile virus lineage 2 leads to neuroinvasive cases in humans and horses in Sicily, 2022-2023. In Italy, West Nile virus (WNV) has been consistently causing disease in humans, horses, and birds since 2008; it was initially confined to the northeast of the country and then spread gradually to the western and southern regions. WNV lineage 1 (WNV-L1) virus was the only lineage that circulated in Italy until 2011, but it was progressively replaced by WNV lineage 2 (WNV-L2). WNV disease in humans was not observed in Sicily, southern Italy, until 2016, when the first case of West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND) due to WNV-L1 was reported. Our results demonstrate the introduction of WNV-L2 i...
A retrospective study of 171 cases of equine meningoencephalomyelitis in the United States, 1996-2023. Equine meningoencephalomyelitis is an important cause of morbidity and mortality and is associated with a wide variety of infectious etiologies. Because of the lack of large retrospective studies, the prevalence and incidence of these diseases are unknown. Here we describe 171 cases of meningoencephalomyelitis in horses submitted to the Section of Anatomic Pathology at the New York State Animal Health Diagnostic Center (Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA) from 1996-2023. Neuroinflammatory disease was identified in 5.4% of submitted horses with a wide breed, age, and sex distribution. A parasi...
Cone beam computed tomographic myelography in horses with cervical vertebral compressive myelopathy. While computed tomographic (CT) myelography is increasingly available and has been evaluated in alive horses, objective criteria for diagnosing cervical vertebral compressive myelopathy (CVCM) are lacking. Objective: To establish morphometric dimensions of the cervical vertebral canal and spinal cords from horses with CVCM and compare those to unaffected horses with the use of cone beam CT (CBCT). Methods: Prospective observational study. Methods: Four control horses and ten horses with CVCM underwent diagnostic imaging and histopathology. Morphometric measurements were obtained from cervical ...
Multicenter results for C7-T1 ventral interbody fusion in horses using the kerf cut cylinder. To describe the surgical approach used in horses undergoing C7-T1 ventral interbody fusion using a kerf cut cylinder (KCC) implant and report the short- and long-term outcomes. Methods: Observational retrospective study. Methods: A total of 38 client-owned horses. Methods: Medical records of horses that underwent ventral interbody fusion because of C7-T1 cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy from 2004 to 2024 were reviewed. Preoperative variables included age, sex, breed, and affected site(s). Surgical variables included types of KCC used, intraoperative complications, and anesthesia related ...
Immunohistochemical and molecular confirmation of West Nile Virus associated polioencephalomyelitis in a mule from Southern Brazil. West Nile fever is a zoonotic arboviral disease caused by the West Nile Virus (WNV), responsible for deaths in humans, mammals, and birds with associated neurological manifestations. All previous investigations of WNV from Brazil were based primarily on serological and molecular analyses and in humans, equids, and birds in the northern and southeastern regions of the country. This study describes the pathological and molecular findings observed in a mule, from the state of Paraná, southern Brazil, that died during an outbreak involving equids with clinical manifestations of a neurological dis...
Traumatic brain abscess due to Streptococcus equi subspecies zooepidemicus in a Foal. Bacterial infection of the equine central nervous system is rare. This report describes the clinical features, computed tomography (CT) findings, and postmortem results of a 3-month-old female Quarter Horse with an intracranial abscess. Clinical signs included seizures, depression, and bilateral blindness. CT imaging demonstrated a large space-occupying lesion in the left cerebral hemisphere, associated with a frontal bone fracture. Necropsy and histopathology confirmed the presence of an abscess secondary to head trauma. Bacterial culture identified Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus as...
Ivermectin toxicosis in a foal: Use of intravenous lipid emulsion therapy. This report describes a case of ivermectin toxicosis in a 4-day-old thoroughbred colt successfully treated with intravenous lipid emulsion (ILE) without complications. This case supports the use of ILE as a safe and effective therapy for the management of lipophilic drug toxicosis in foals. Key clinical message: Ivermectin toxicosis, though rare in equine neonates, can occur following accidental overdose and induces severe neurologic signs. In this case, ILE administration resulted in rapid neurologic improvement and complete recovery without adverse effects, supporting its use as a safe and e...
Selection at the GSDMC locus in horses and its implications for human mobility. Horsepower revolutionized human history through enhanced mobility, transport, and warfare. However, the suite of biological traits that reshaped horses during domestication remains unclear. We scanned an extensive horse genome time series for selection signatures at 266 markers associated with key traits. We detected a signature of positive selection at -known to be a modulator of behavior in mice-occurring ~5000 years ago (ya), suggesting that taming was one of the earliest steps toward domestication of horses. Intensive selection at began ~4750 ya with the domestication bottleneck, leading ...
Are Equine Assisted Interactions (EAI) a Dark Horse Bet? A Systematic Review on Measuring the Psychological and Physiological Effects of EAI on PTSD, Anxiety and/or Mood Disorders. Background: Conventional forms of trauma-focused psychological interventions seem to be less effective in military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Equine Assisted Interventions (EAI) have become increasingly popular as an additional treatment, resulting in increasing research on the effects of EAI. However, no systematic review on the effects of EAI has focused on PTSD, anxiety and/or mood disorders and whether the effects are reflected in psychological and physiological measures. This systematic review investigated the treatment effects, study design, population, interven...
First night effect alters occipital brain connectivity in horses. The First Night Effect is a phenomenon whereby sleep duration and quality are compromised in unfamiliar environments or situations. Horses are often transported to new locations, such as sporting events. We wanted to know if the First Night Effect is also detectable in horses in two different populations. To investigate this, we compared five horses from a professional sports horse barn that are regularly used in competitions, with six horses from a breeding barn, that are less frequently transferred to unfamiliar places. Despite the significant differences observed in electroencephalography (...
Effectiveness of Equine-Assisted Intervention as a Therapeutic Strategy for Improving Adaptive Behaviour in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. : This study examines the effectiveness of equine-assisted intervention (EAI) in improving adaptive behaviour and motor skills in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). : To that effect, a self-controlled experimental analytical study has been designed, which is longitudinal and prospective in nature, with pre- and post-intervention measures, using the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale II (VABS-II) as the assessment instrument. The sample consists of 19 children who participated in weekly therapeutic sessions involving horses for eight months; these sessions included horseback riding, gr...
Equine Asthma in a Comparative Perspective: Cardiovascular and Neurological Manifestations of Asthma Across Different Species. Asthma is a multifactorial respiratory disease that naturally occurs in horses, humans, and cats, presenting common clinical signs and species-specific mechanisms. This review addresses the impact of asthma on the cardiovascular and neurological systems, with a primary focus on horses. It highlights the need for new biomarkers beyond the respiratory system due to diagnostic difficulties in animals. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar, focusing on cardiovascular and neurological manifestations of asthma in humans, horses, cats, and experimental animal...
Cellular Immune Response in Horses After West Nile Neuroinvasive Disease. West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne neurotropic virus that causes neurologic disease in both humans and horses. Yet the long-term cellular immune response following natural infection in horses remains poorly understood. This study aims to evaluate the WNV-specific T-cell response in horses recovered from West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND). Twelve client-owned horses (4 Hungarian sport horses, 2 Lippizaners, 1 KWPN, 1 Shagya Arabian, 1 Friesian, 1 Gidran, 1 Andalusian, and 1 draft cross horse) with confirmed clinical WNV infection were enrolled, and peripheral blood mononuclear cells ...
Cannabinoid Receptors in the Horse Lateral Nucleus of the Amygdala: A Potential Target for Ameliorating Pain Perception, Stress and Anxiety in Horses. The amygdala is composed of several nuclei, including the lateral nucleus which is the main receiving area for the input from cortical and subcortical brain regions. It mediates fear, anxiety, stress, and pain across species. Evidence suggests that the endocannabinoid system may be a promising target for modulating these processes. Cannabinoid and cannabinoid-related receptors have been identified in the amygdala of rodents, carnivores, and humans, but not in horses. This study aimed to investigate the gene expression of cannabinoid receptors 1 (CB1R) and 2 (CB2R), transient receptor potential...
Mapping Bornavirus encephalitis-A comparative study of viral spread and immune response in human and animal dead-end hosts. Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1) has long been recognized as a cause of fatal encephalitis in animals and was only recently identified as a zoonotic pathogen causing a similar disease in humans. This study provides the first comprehensive comparative analysis of BoDV-1-induced neuropathology in human and animal end hosts, including horses, sheep, and alpacas. Using immunohistochemical analyses, we investigated the topographical distribution of BoDV-1 and inflammatory responses in the central nervous system across 19 cases. Key findings reveal distinct differences and overlaps between humans and ...
Trigeminal Nerve Asymmetry in Horses With Idiopathic Trigeminal-Mediated Headshaking: A Retrospective Case-Control Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study. Nerve atrophy results in trigeminal nerve (TN) asymmetry detectable by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in humans, but similar studies have not been performed in horses with idiopathic trigeminal-mediated headshaking (ITMHS). Objective: Horses with ITMHS show greater MRI-detected trigeminal-nerve asymmetry than controls. Methods: A total of 20 adult horses with ITMHS and six unaffected control horses. Methods: Retrospective case-control study of the TN cross-sectional area (TNCSA) based on 3-Tesla MRI scans of the equine brain. TNCSA and its side-to-side differences at four defined measurement...
Pathophysiology of penetrating captive-bolt stunning of horses. There has been limited research into the effectiveness of penetrating captive bolt (PCB) for stunning horses () at slaughter. This study observed 100 horses at a commercial abattoir in Mexico, stunned using pneumatic PCB. Animals were assessed at the time of stunning and immediately after for signs of effective/ineffective stunning and shot positioning, with macroscopic gross brain pathology conducted to determine brain trauma. Twenty-five percent (25/100) received more than one shot and 28% (28/100) displayed behavioural signs of ineffective stunning. Of these 28 animals, all had deviations o...
Phylogenetic variation of layer II cortical immature neurons in dog and horse confirms covariance with brain size and neocortical surface. Recent research in brain structural plasticity has identified "immature" or "dormant" neurons in layer II of the cerebral cortex (cortical immature neurons; cINs), cells that remain in a prolonged state of arrested development but retain the ability to resume maturation and integrate functionally into mature cortical circuits. These immature cells are far more abundant in large-brained mammals, being restricted to paleocortex (piriform cortex) in small-brained rodents and extending in the widely expanded neocortical mantle of species with large gyrencephalic brains. In a previous systematic an...
Computed tomographic myelography of the cranial cervical spine in Warmblood horses with no spinal pathology-Inter- and intravertebral ratios and distribution of contrast columns in neutral and flexed cervical spine. Computed tomographic myelography (CTM) and radiographic myelography (RxM) are diagnostic for extradural spinal cord compression, but knowledge about the contrast distribution in flexion and normal position of nonaffected horses is lacking. Objective: (1) To determine the inter- and intravertebral ratios at C3-C4 of CTM in neutral and flexed positions in Warmbloods. (2) To compare the diameters of the spinal cord and the contrast columns at C3-C4 between neutral and flexed positions in CTM and RxM. (3) To evaluate the variability of measurements. Methods: Terminal in vivo method-comparison stud...
Review of published research on primary dysautonomia of domestic animals. An article published in 1992 by Marion M. Pollin and I.R. Griffiths reviewed the topic of primary dysautonomias of the autonomic nervous system of unidentified origin in multiple domestic species, specifically cats, dogs and horses. Thirty-one years later, we appear no closer to identifying the causal agents of these strikingly similar diseases. This article reviews the similarities and differences in clinical presentation and pathology of dysautonomia in canids, felids, equids, leporids and other less frequently reported species.
