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Topic:Risk Factors
Risk factors in horses refer to variables or conditions that increase the likelihood of disease, injury, or other adverse health outcomes in equine populations. These factors can be intrinsic, such as age, breed, and genetic predisposition, or extrinsic, including environmental conditions, management practices, and exposure to infectious agents. Understanding risk factors is important for developing preventive strategies and improving health management in horses. This page aggregates peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the identification, assessment, and mitigation of risk factors in equine health, with the aim of enhancing disease prevention and promoting overall well-being in horses.
Use of a Bayesian risk-mapping technique to estimate spatial risks for mare reproductive loss syndrome in Kentucky. To estimate spatial risks associated with mare reproductive loss syndrome (MRLS) during 2001 among horses in a specific study population and partition the herd effects into those attributable to herd location and those that were spatially random and likely attributable to herd management. Animals-Pregnant broodmares from 62 farms in 7 counties in central Kentucky. Methods: Veterinarians provided the 2001 abortion incidence proportions for each farm included in the study. Farms were georeferenced and data were analyzed by use of a fully Bayesian risk-mapping technique. Results: Large farm-to-fa...
Relationships between fore- and hindlimb ground reaction force and hoof deceleration patterns in trotting horses. The transmission of shockwaves following hoof impact is proposed to be one major source of stress to the limb. In the forelimb, there are indications that the period of horizontal deceleration of the hoof is related to the attenuation of shockwaves. In the hindlimb, information about the hoof deceleration has been lacking. Objective: To compare hoof deceleration patterns between the fore- and hindlimbs. Methods: Seven Standardbreds were trotted by hand over a force plate covered with sand, with triaxial accelerometers mounted on the fore and hind hooves. Variables representative of deceleratio...
Biochemical markers of bone metabolism and risk of dorsal metacarpal disease in 2-year-old Thoroughbreds. Dorsal metacarpal disease (DMD) is a common problem in 2-year-old racehorses and results in loss of a significant number of days from training. Biochemical markers of bone cell activity measured early in the training season could have value for identifying 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses that develop DMD. Objective: To determine the association between serum concentrations of osteocalcin, the carboxyterminal propeptide of type I collagen (PICP) and the carboxyterminal cross-linked telopeptide of type I collagen (ICTP) measured early in the training season and the risk of DMD. Methods: Blood...
Glucocorticoids and laminitis in the horse. The administration of exogenously administered GCs and syndromes associated with GC excess are both attended by increased risk for the development of laminitis in adult horses. However, there exists substantial controversy as to whether excess GCs cause laminitis de novo. If true, the pathogenesis of laminitis arising from the effects of GC excess is probably different from that associated with diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and endotoxemia. Although a satisfactory explanation for the development of laminitis as a consequence of GC action is currently lacking, numerous possible and pla...
Nonfatal injury rates of Utah agricultural producers. The purposes of this study were to identify the source and frequency of agricultural injuries in Utah, and determine an injury rate for common agricultural activities. Previous studies conducted in Utah examined injury rates by utilizing emergency room logs. This study collected data directly from the source, farmers and ranchers in Utah, and included all modes of treatment. A random sample of Utah Farm Bureau members were mailed questionnaires to assess the number of injuries occurring during the past three years, the mode of treatment for the most recent injury, and the percentage of time sp...
A prospective cohort study to investigate risk factors for horse falls in UK hurdle and steeplechase racing. Equine fatalities during racing continue to be a major welfare concern and falls at fences are responsible for a proportion of all equine fatalities recorded on racecourses. Objective: To identify and quantify risk factors for horse falls in National Hunt (NH) racing and to report the frequency of falling and falling-associated fatalities. Methods: A prospective cohort study was conducted on 2879 horse starts in hurdle and steeplechase races on 6 UK racecourses. Any horse that suffered a fall at a steeplechase or hurdle fence during the race was defined as a case. Data were obtained by intervi...
Effects of injury to the suspensory apparatus, exercise, and horseshoe characteristics on the risk of lateral condylar fracture and suspensory apparatus failure in forelimbs of thoroughbred racehorses. To assess concurrently the effects of moderate ligamentous suspensory apparatus injury (MLSAI), racing-speed exercise, and horseshoe characteristics on risk of catastrophic suspensory apparatus failure (SAF) or metacarpal condylar fracture (CDY) in forelimbs of racehorses. Methods: Cadavers of 301 Thoroughbred racehorses (108 with SAF, 33 with CDY and 160 control horses). Methods: A cross-sectional epidemiologic study was used to describe distributions and relationships between MLSAI, exercise, and horseshoe variables. Logistic regression was used to assess potential risk factors for developin...
Factors associated with the prevalence of osseous fragments in the limb joints of Hanoverian Warmblood horses. Factors associated with the prevalence of osseous fragments (OF) in fetlock and hock joints were investigated in a population of young Hanoverian Warmblood horses selected for sale at auction from 1991 to 1998. The study was based on results of a standardized radiological examination of 3127 horses. The prevalences of OF in the two joints were significantly dependent on the date, type and quality of the auction, the region of origin and on the anticipated suitability of the horses for dressage and/or show-jumping. The probability of finding OF increased with wither-height. Furthermore, there w...
Pre-operative and anaesthesia-related risk factors for mortality in equine colic cases. Mortality rates for horses that have undergone emergency abdominal surgery are higher than for other procedures. Here, multivariable modelling of data from 774 surgical colic cases is used to identify pre-operative and anaesthesia-related variables associated with intra- and post-operative mortality. Intra-operative mortality was significantly (P<0.05), and positively associated with heart rate and packed cell volume (PCV) at admission, and negatively associated with the severity of pain. Post-operative mortality increased with increasing age and PCV at admission. Draught horses, Thoroughbr...
Horses and the risk of zoonotic infections. Infectious agents are insidious, often changing to adapt to host defenses or treatment advances. Because these challenges will continue, the need to apply standard and transmission-based precautions is important not only in the human hospital setting but in the veterinary clinic setting. In addition, to prevent human infection and potential liability, clinics need to establish program algorithms to prevent disease spread for specific agents or planned procedures to respond to potential nosocomial and zoonotic disease events. These need to be done proactively. Furthermore, more money needs to b...
Evaluation of risk factors associated with development of postoperative ileus in horses. To determine factors associated with development of postoperative ileus (POI) in horses undergoing surgery for colic. Methods: Prospective case-control study. Methods: 251 horses undergoing colic surgery, of which 47 developed POI. Methods: Signalment, history, clinicopathologic data, pre- and postoperative treatments, lesions, complications, costs, and outcome were recorded for all horses during hospitalization. Results: Variables associated with increased odds of POI included small intestinal lesion, high PCV, and increased duration of anesthesia. There was modest evidence that pelvic flexur...
Retrospective study of the risk factors and prevalence of colic in horses after orthopaedic surgery. The records of 496 orthopaedic operations on 428 horses were reviewed to estimate the prevalence of, and identify the risk factors for, the development of colic in horses after surgery. Colic was defined as any recognised sign of abdominal pain that could not be attributed to a concurrent disease. Fourteen of the horses developed colic; eight of them were undiagnosed, three were classified as impactions, one as tympanic colic of the colon, one as incarceration of the small intestine in the epiploic foramen, and one as left dorsal displacement of the colon in the nephrosplenic space. Morphine w...
Esterified estrogens and conjugated equine estrogens and the risk of venous thrombosis. Clinical trial evidence indicates that estrogen therapy with or without progestins increases venous thrombotic risk. The findings from these trials, which used oral conjugated equine estrogens, may not be generalizable to other estrogen compounds. Objective: To compare risk of venous thrombosis among esterified estrogen users, conjugated equine estrogen users, and nonusers. Methods: This population-based, case-control study was conducted at a large health maintenance organization in Washington State. Cases were perimenopausal and postmenopausal women aged 30 to 89 years who sustained a first v...
Race- and course-level risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture in racing Thoroughbreds. Considerable variation in the rates of equine fatality at different racecourses draws attention to probable risk factors at the level of course or race that might be partly responsible. Distal limb fractures are the most common cause of equine fatality on UK racecourses and identification of risk factors for such injuries and subsequent implementation of intervention strategies could significantly reduce the total number of racecourse fatalities. Objective: To identify race- and course-level risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture in Thoroughbreds on UK racecourses. Methods: A case-control...
Horse-level risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture in racing Thoroughbreds in the UK. Fractures below the level of the radius or tibia (distal limb fractures) are the most common cause of equine fatality on UK racecourses; however, little is known about their epidemiology or aetiology. Identification of risk factors could enable intervention strategies to be designed to reduce the number of fatalities. Objective: To identify horse-level risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture in Thoroughbreds on UK racecourses. Methods: A case-control study design was used. Fractures in case horses were confirmed by post mortem examination and 3 matched uninjured controls were selected from...
Risk of postnatal exposure to Sarcocystis neurona and Neospora hughesi in horses. To estimate risk of exposure and age at first exposure to Sarcocystis neurona and Neospora hughesi and time to maternal antibody decay in foals. Methods: 484 Thoroughbred and Warmblood foals from 4 farms in California. Methods: Serum was collected before and after colostrum ingestion and at 3-month intervals thereafter. Samples were tested by use of the indirect fluorescent antibody test; cutoff titers were > or = 40 and > or = 160 for S neurona and N hughesi, respectively. Results: Risk of exposure to S neurona and N hughesi during the study were 8.2% and 3.1%, respectively. Annual rate...
Outcome of equids with clinical signs of West Nile virus infection and factors associated with death. To determine outcome of equids in the western United States with clinical signs of West Nile virus (WNV) infection and identify factors associated with risk of death in infected equids. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: 484 equids in Nebraska and Colorado. Methods: Owners of 484 equids with laboratory-confirmed West Nile virus infection in Nebraska and Colorado were contacted by telephone, and a questionnaire was used to obtain information on signalment, management, clinical signs, date of disease onset, duration of disease, WNV vaccination status, and health status at the time of the i...
Risk factors associated with fecal Salmonella shedding among hospitalized horses with signs of gastrointestinal tract disease. To estimate prevalence of and identify risk factors for fecal Salmonella shedding among hospitalized horses with signs of gastrointestinal tract disease. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: 465 hospitalized horses with gastrointestinal tract disease. Methods: Horses were classified as positive or negative for fecal Salmonella shedding during hospitalization by means of standard aerobic bacteriologic methods. The relationship between investigated exposure factors and fecal Salmonella shedding was examined by means of logistic regression. Results: The overall prevalence of fecal Salmonella ...
The effects of strain heterology on the epidemiology of equine influenza in a vaccinated population. We assess the effects of strain heterology (strains that are immunologically similar but not identical) on equine influenza in a vaccinated population. Using data relating to individual animals, for both homologous and heterologous vaccinees, we estimate distributions for the latent and infectious periods, quantify the risk of becoming infected in terms of the quantity of cross-reactive antibodies to a key surface protein of the virus (haemagglutinin) and estimate the probability of excreting virus (i.e. becoming infectious) given that infection has occurred. The data suggest that the infectio...
Case-control investigation of the factors affecting the risk of horses falling during steeplechase racing in the UK. A concurrent case-control study of 12 UK racecourses was made between March 1, 2000, and August 31, 2001, to identify and quantify the factors associated with the risk of horses falling in steeplechase races. Cases were defined as a jumping effort at a steeplechase fence that resulted in a fall and controls were defined as a successful jumping effort over any steeplechase fence at any of the 12 racecourses within 14 days before or after the case fall. Information on the horse, the jockey and the race were collected and all the fences on all the courses were surveyed. Conditional logistic regre...
Whip use and race progress are associated with horse falls in hurdle and steeplechase racing in the UK. Falls during racing present a risk of injury to both horse and jockey and a risk of fatality to horses. Objective: To use video recordings of races to describe the circumstances surrounding horse falls at hurdle and steeplechase fences and to identify and quantify within-race risk factors for horse falls in National Hunt racing in the UK. Methods: A retrospective, matched, nested case-control study using video recordings of races was conducted on 6 UK racecourses. Cases and controls were matched on both race type and jump number at which the fall occurred. Conditional logistic regression analy...
Association between race history and risk of superficial digital flexor tendon injury in Thoroughbred racehorses. To determine whether race history, including the number of races and total race distance, was associated with risk of superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injury in Thoroughbred racehorses in Japan. Methods: Matched case-control study. Methods: 515 Thoroughbred racehorses (case horses) that sustained an SDFT injury during training or racing in Japan during 2002 and 951 horses (control horses) without SDFT injury that were matched with case horses on the basis of age and month of the latest race. Methods: Variables related to race history were compared between case and control horses by mea...
Factors associated with mortality and morbidity in small intestinal volvulus in horses. To determine historical, physical, and clinical factors that may affect morbidity and mortality in horses with small intestinal volvulus unrelated to other causes (e.g., incarceration, lipoma, etc.). Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Client-owned horses (115), aged 1 month to 21 years. Methods: Data were obtained from medical records, identified by computer search and manual review. Continuous variables were compared between affected and non-affected horses with Mann-Whitney U-tests and non-continuous variables with Fisher's exact test (2 x 2 tables) or chi(2)-tests (larger tables). Stepw...
Dietary risk factors and colonic pH and mineral concentrations in horses with enterolithiasis. A prospective, unmatched case control study was performed to identify dietary and environmental risk factors for enterolithiasis in horses in California and to determine whether colonic ingesta analyses differed between horses with and without enteroliths. Forty-three horses with enterolithiasis were compared with 19 horses with surgical colic attributable to nonstrangulating obstruction of the colon without enteroliths. Colonic ingesta samples were collected at surgery from horses with enteroliths and control horses. Colonic pH and colonic concentrations of magnesium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodi...
Prevalence of superficial digital flexor tendonitis and suspensory desmitis in Japanese Thoroughbred flat racehorses in 1999. Overstrain injuries to the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) and suspensory ligament (SI) are among the most common musculoskeletal injuries which contribute to the considerable wastage of racing Thoroughbreds. Many epidemiological studies have demonstrated the prevalence of and risk factors for tendon injury when racing but have not included those injuries sustained during training. However, since tendon injury during training is seen commonly in clinical practice, it is appropriate to determine the overall prevalence of tendon injury sustained during both training and racing. Objectiv...
Memory decay and performance-related information bias in the reporting of scores by event riders. We used data from a case-control study investigating risk factors for horse falls in the cross-country phase of eventing in Great Britain (GB) to examine evidence for memory decay and information bias. Responses to two questions obtained by telephone for 173 cases and 521 controls were examined for evidence of differential reporting according to the respondent's case-control status and performance in the dressage and cross-country phases of competitions. Information bias was found in the accuracy of reporting dressage penalty scores when analysed as a function of performance level (good/poor)....
In vitro and in vivo studies of homocysteine in equine tissues: implications for the pathophysiology of laminitis. Elevated plasma homocysteine (HCy) concentration is a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases associated with endothelial dysfunction, including the human digital ischaemic disease, Raynaud's phenomenon. Objective: HCy causes dysfunction of equine vascular endothelium and elevated plasma concentrations predispose to laminitis. Objective: To determine 1) the concentration of HCy in vitro, which inhibits equine vascular endothelial cell function and 2) any association between risk of laminitis and plasma HCy concentration. Methods: Endothelial function was studied by measuring endothelium-depend...
Risk of fatal distal limb fractures among Thoroughbreds involved in the five types of racing in the United Kingdom. The risk of fatal distal limb fractures in thoroughbreds racing in the UK was calculated and shown to vary considerably between the different types of race. Flat turf racing was associated with the lowest risk (0.4 per 1000 starts) and national hunt flat racing was associated with the highest risk (2.2 per 1000 starts). The types of fracture were classified by detailed radiographic and postmortem examinations of all the cases recorded over two years, and the distribution of the different types of fracture in the five main types of racing was examined. Overall, lateral condylar fractures of the...
Pediatric farm-related injuries: a series of 96 hospitalized patients. Ninety-six children were admitted during a 9-year period to a pediatric level 1 trauma center for treatment of farm-related injuries. The age range was from 6 weeks to 17 years (median, 7.5 years; mean, 7.6 years; standard deviation, 4.4). Thirty-nine patients (40.6%) had an animal-related injury, including 36 children (37.5%) who had an injury associated with a horse. Amish children had an increased risk of horse-related injury when compared with non-Amish children (p=0.04; RR=2.09, 95% CI: 1.18<RR<3.70). Thirty-seven patients (38.5%) had farm machinery-related injuries, including 14 ch...
[Doubling of the number of cases of tick bites and lyme borreliosis seen by general practitioners in the Netherlands]. To obtain detailed information about the current geographical distribution and incidence of tick bites and Lyme borreliosis in the Netherlands and to identify regional differences in the ecological risk factors that might be involved. Methods: Retrospective questionnaire study. Methods: All Dutch general practitioner's (GP) practices. Methods: In April 2002, all GPs in the Netherlands were asked to complete a short questionnaire on the number of cases of tick bites and erythema migrans seen in 2001 and the size of their practice. Associations with possible risk factors were determined at the m...
