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Topic:Infectious Disease
Infectious diseases in horses encompass a range of illnesses caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites. These diseases can affect various systems within the equine body, leading to symptoms that range from mild discomfort to severe systemic illness. Common infectious diseases in horses include equine influenza, strangles, equine herpesvirus, and West Nile virus. These diseases can be transmitted through direct contact with infected animals, contaminated surfaces, or vectors such as insects. Understanding the mechanisms of transmission, pathogenesis, and immune response is essential for effective prevention and control. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and management of infectious diseases in horses.
First confirmed report of equine coital exanthema in Uruguayan horses. Equine Coital Exanthema (ECE) is a contagious venereal disease caused by Equid alphaherpesvirus 3 (EHV‑3). Although ECE is self-limiting, it causes significant economic losses to the global equine industry due to the temporary segregation of affected mares and stallions from breeding activities. This report describes the epidemiological, clinical, histological, and molecular findings from an outbreak of ECE in Uruguayan horses. Seven days following the introduction of a stallion, five mares developed extensive papular and vesicular dermatitis in the vaginal and perineal regions. The stallion...
Integrated workflow for production and in vitro characterization of equine anti-SARS-CoV-2 hyperimmune serum with epitope mapping. This study establishes an integrated workflow linking antibody production, neutralization assessment, and epitope mapping, supporting the identification of antigenic regions recognized by polyclonal antibodies generated in vivo. The viral suspension was inactivated with β-propiolactone under biosafety level 3 (BSL-3) conditions, with no cytopathic effect or plaque formation observed, confirming loss of viral replicative capacity. The produced immunogen retained antigenic activity, as demonstrated by reactivity with IgG antibodies from vaccinated and previously infected individuals. Protein an...
Genetic diversity of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from members of the families camelidae and equidae worldwide: a systematic review. Toxoplasma gondii is an apicomplexan parasite with a global distribution and significant public health and veterinary treatment implications. The present systematic review collates worldwide information on the genotypic diversity of T. gondii isolates infecting Camelidae (camels, alpacas, llamas, etc.) and Equidae (horses, donkeys, zebras, mules, etc.) and highlights their potential role as sentinels of environmental contamination and zoonotic spread. An exhaustive literature search of six electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, ProQuest, Science Direct, and Google Scholar) from ...
Global prevalence and epidemiological determinants of African horse sickness: A systematic review and meta-analysis. African horse sickness (AHS) is a highly fatal, vector-borne viral disease of equids with substantial economic and animal health impacts, particularly in endemic regions. Despite numerous epidemiological studies, reported prevalence estimates remain highly variable, and a comprehensive quantitative synthesis is lacking. This study aimed to systematically evaluate and synthesize the global prevalence of AHS and to identify sources of epidemiological heterogeneity. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, with the protocol registered in the Open Scie...
In vitro cultivation of Trypanosoma equiperdum: Comparison of in vitro and in vivo antigens for an ethical and sustainable serological diagnosis of Dourine. The protozoan Trypanosoma equiperdum is the causative agent of Dourine, a contagious sexually transmitted disease of equines that can manifest itself in chronic or acute form. Dourine has serious veterinary and economic implications, as there are no vaccines available for prevention and the management of the disease requires the culling of infected animals, together with rigorous sanitary control measures. This study compares the traditional production of T. equiperdum antigen grown in vivo, with an in vitro cultivation methodology developed to eliminate the use of animals. The in vitro and in...
Horse racing towards antibiotic resistance. Accompanying animals as a source of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Antibiotic resistance is a significant issue in modern infectious medicine and veterinary science, with animals, including horses, playing a crucial role in its dissemination. Antibiotics, used both for treatment and prevention of diseases in animals, influence the composition of the microbiota and promote the selection of resistant strains that can be transmitted to humans through direct or environmental contact. Horses, currently classified as companion animals, serve as a reservoir of commensal and pathogenic bacteria, including multidrug-resistant strains capable of horizontal gene transfe...
The prevalence of Streptococcus equi subsp. equi carriers in the Netherlands. Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi) carriers are thought to be important drivers for strangles outbreaks. Limited data are available on the prevalence of carriers in European horse husbandry settings. Objective: To estimate the prevalence of S. equi carriers among apparently healthy adult horses and ponies in the Netherlands. Methods: Cross-sectional survey. Methods: The carrier prevalence in the Netherlands was estimated, detecting carriers by PCR analysis of three repeated nasopharyngeal lavages at weekly intervals. Bayesian methods were used for a true prevalence estimation. Result...
Equine sentinels and one health: a comprehensive serological survey of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in southeastern and Central Europe. Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is the widespread tick-borne viral disease affecting humans with endemic circulation across Africa, Asia, Eastern and Southern Europe. Climate change, global travel, and animal trade have accelerated the expansion of spp., the primary tick vectors of CCHF, into previously non-endemic areas, including the Czech Republic. To assess the current distribution of CCHF in equids across Southeastern and Central Europe, we screened serum samples from horses and donkeys from Bulgaria ( = 579), Romania ( = 1,534), and the Czech Republic ( = 576) by the ...
Glanders: Past, Present and Future of a Neglected Zoonosis as a Threat in Veterinary and Human Health. Burkholderia mallei is the causative agent of glanders, a serious zoonotic disease of major concern for both animal and human health. This highly contagious and potentially fatal bacterium is always classified as a biothreat agent. In this review, we covered a comprehensive overview of glanders, including the biology of the pathogen, epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, control strategies and ongoing eradication programs in Eurasia. We also summarized human case reports, differential diagnosis, treatment and organism's antimicrobial properties. The section on vaccine development is among the...
Autochthonous Leishmaniosis in Dogs, Cats, Horses, and Wildlife in the United States of America. Leishmaniasis is endemic in 99 countries worldwide, including the United States of America (USA). Its causative pathogens, spp. have been detected in both humans and animals within the USA. Lately, we have comprehensively reviewed autochthonous leishmaniasis in humans in this region. Animals play a pivotal role in maintaining its endemicity in some endemic areas and regions, for example, dogs in Brazil and the Mediterranean. In this review, we thoroughly examine autochthonous leishmaniosis in dogs, cats, horses, and wildlife in the USA, and we synthesize integration across species, transmissi...
Multivalent Disabled Infectious Single Animal (DISA)-DIVA vaccine for all nine serotypes of African horse sickness virus (AHSV) is broadly protective in IFNAR (-/-) mice. African horse sickness (AHS) is a highly severe, midge-borne disease of equids showing a mortality rate of > 90% in naive domestic horses. Outbreaks are caused by AHS virus (AHSV) and result in devastating economic losses in developing countries as equids play a crucial role in the agricultural industry and many households. The AHSV species encompasses nine serotypes showing no or limited cross protection, which is challenging regarding AHS vaccine development. Recently, and like bluetongue virus (BTV), the AHS Disabled Infectious Single Animal (DISA)-DIVA vaccine platform was developed...
Molecular typing, biofilm characteristics and biofilm-targeted inhibition strategies of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus isolated from donkey endometritis. Endometritis is a major cause of infertility in intensively farmed donkeys. Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus (SEZ) is a predominant pathogen that readily forms biofilms in equine endometritis, conferring resistance to conventional treatments. Objective: This study aimed to characterize the biofilm dynamics of SEZ isolates obtained from donkeys and to evaluate potential anti-biofilm strategies with different drug combinations. Methods: Uterine lavage samples were collected from 30 Dezhou Black donkeys with clinical endometritis. Bacterial cultures were performed on blood agar and MacConk...
Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever Virus Exposure in Horses and Donkeys in Border Livestock Markets of Nigeria. Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV) is a tick-borne zoonotic pathogen of major public health importance in Africa. Although CCHFV exposure has been reported in several livestock species in Nigeria, data on equids remain limited despite their extensive involvement in livestock movement and trade. This study assessed CCHFV seroprevalence in horses and donkeys in major international livestock markets in northern Nigeria and examined factors associated with exposure. Methods: From June 2023 to July 2024, a longitudinal sero-surveillance study was conducted in three high-volume livestock...
Cross-neutralization and antigenic characterization of simian and equine group A rotaviruses. Rotaviral diarrhea in foals is caused by two dominant G3P[12] and G14P[12] genotypes of equine rotavirus A (ERVA). Protection of foals against ERVA infection and disease is achievable by passive antibody transfer through colostrum from mares receiving inactivated monovalent G3P[12] vaccine. Simian rotavirus SA11 G3P[2] is also included in ERVA vaccines to protect foals. Here, we characterized cross-neutralization and protection among three distinctive rotaviruses carrying the same or different G (defined by VP7) or P (defined by VP4) genotype by using a rabbit and equine monospecific antisera ...
Global seroprevalence and epidemiological patterns of equine viral arteritis from 1968 to 2025: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Equine viral arteritis (EVA) is a globally widespread infectious disease affecting equids, with significant consequences for reproductive efficiency and the regulation of international equine trade. Nevertheless, despite the accumulation of numerous region-specific investigations, an integrated synthesis of global seroprevalence estimates and overarching epidemiological patterns remains insufficiently developed. Objective: To calculate the pooled global seroprevalence of EVA and to explore sources of epidemiological heterogeneity. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis were undertaken ...
Survey occurrence of serum antibodies against Leishmania spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Trypanosoma cruzi, agents with zoonotic potential, in horses from the state of São Paulo, Brazil. In this research, a seroepidemiological survey was conducted on 202 horses located on 21 properties in the northwestern region of the state of São Paulo (Brazil) to estimate exposure to Leishmania spp., Toxoplasma gondii, and Trypanosoma cruzi. Antibodies against Leishmania, T. gondii and T. cruzi, were detected in 48 (23.76%), 29 (14.36%) and 2 (0.99%) of the 202 horses, respectively. We found a significantly higher occurrence of antibodies against Leishmania compared to those against the other protozoa (Chi-Square = 46.7, 2 d.f., P < 0.001). Seropositivity for the aforementioned prot...
Diagnosis and Surveillance of West Nile Virus Infection in Horses: Current Methods, Challenges, and Future Directions. West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus of growing importance for both human and equine health in Europe. Horses are highly susceptible to neurological disease and, because they share ecological exposure with humans, they represent valuable sentinels for detecting local viral circulation within a One Health framework. However, diagnosis of WNV infection in equines is complicated by the short and low-level viraemia, which limits the sensitivity of molecular assays, and by serological cross-reactivity with related flaviviruses and the confounding effects of vaccination. In this narr...
Septic Endophthalmitis Following Suprachoroidal Cyclosporine Implant Placement in Two Horses With Equine Recurrent Uveitis. This article presents the clinical and histopathological findings from two horses that developed severe postoperative complications following suprachoroidal procedures routinely employed in the management of equine recurrent uveitis (ERU). Case 1 was a 5-year-old warmblood stallion that initially received a unilateral suprachoroidal triamcinolone injection, followed later by bilateral suprachoroidal cyclosporine implant (CSI) placement. At 9 weeks postoperatively, the right eye (which had undergone both procedures) developed secondary glaucoma necessitating enucleation. Case 2 was a 14-year-ol...
The 2025 outbreak of equine influenza among draft horses at Obihiro Racecourse, Hokkaido, Japan. In 2025, an outbreak of equine influenza occurred among draft horses at Obihiro Racecourse in Hokkaido, Japan. The number of horses showing clinical signs increased dramatically in April. The proportion affected was significantly higher in 2-year-olds than in older groups. The proportion that developed fever during the outbreak was significantly higher than that observed among Thoroughbreds during the 2007 outbreak. In non-epidemic periods, the geometric mean hemagglutination inhibition antibody titer of 2-year-old draft horses was significantly lower than that of 2-year-old Thoroughbreds. The...
Molecular characterization of Anaplasmataceae in Turkmen horses (Akhal-Teke breed) and ticks in racetracks, Iran. Due to the abundance of ticks on open grassy surfaces, racetracks may represent ideal scenarios for tick-borne pathogens. Therefore, in 2024/2025 Turkmen horses (Akhal-Teke breed) and ticks collected by dragging in paddocks of Iran were screened for Anaplasmataceae using Sanger sequencing on 16S rRNA, TRP36 and dsb genes. Amongst 200 horses, 11 (5.5%) tested positive without signs/symptoms, being 8 (4%) for Ehrlichia canis and 3 (1.5%) for Anaplasma ovis; no difference in prevalence was found by gender and age (p>0.05). All ticks were identified as Hyalomma asiaticum and Haemaphysalis sulca...
When Vibrio is not Vibrio: misidentified Aeromonas sp. associated with equine abortions and neonatal death, revealed by MALDI-TOF and 16S rRNA sequencing. A retrospective review of equine necropsies performed at the Normandy Laboratory for Animal Health, French Agency for food, environmental and occupational health and safety (1996-2022) unexpectedly reported Vibrio alginolyticus, Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus in equine samples using API 20NE, prompting a re-evaluation of bacterial identification. Of 27 strains, 25 were cultivable, and re-examined using API 20NE, API 20E, MALDI-TOF, 16S rRNA gene sequencing and Vibrio-specific PCR assays. API 20NE confirmed the original (erroneous) identifications; all Vibrio-specific PCR assays ...
Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) feeding on donkeys in the United Kingdom, with reference to the risk of transmission and persistence of African horse sickness virus. African horse sickness virus (AHSV: Sedoreoviridae; Orbivirus) causes a severe and often fatal disease in horses (African horse sickness: AHS) and is transmitted almost exclusively by Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae). In recent years, unprecedented outbreaks of AHSV have occurred in new geographical foci in Thailand and other related Culicoides-borne viruses continue to emerge unexpectedly, causing disease outbreaks in northern Europe. This study investigated Culicoides abundance and diversity at a donkey (Equus asinus) sanctuary in southern England. The incidence and severi...
Epidemiological study and risk factors of equine (Equus ferus caballus) gastrointestinal helminth infections in the north and northeast of Iran. Understanding the epidemiology of gastrointestinal (GI) helminth infections in equines is critical for investigating drug resistance patterns and developing effective strategies to control and prevent these infections. There is a lack of data regarding horse GI helminths and risk factors in the north and northeast of Iran. Hence, the present study aimed to identify GI helminths in horses in these regions and determine their risk factors. A total of 340 fecal specimens from horses of north ( = 141) and northeast ( = 199) Iran were coprologically examined for GI helminth infections. The poly...
Interstitial pneumonia associated with equid gammaherpesvirus 5 infection in 2 neonatal foals, and a retrospective study in Hokkaido, Japan. Various bacterial and viral pathogens have been identified in cases of interstitial pneumonia in foals within the first month of life. A potential association has been suggested between equid gammaherpesvirus 5 (EqGHV5, equine herpesvirus 5; family , taxon species ) and interstitial pneumonia in foals; however, direct histologic evidence has been limited. We examined 2 neonates-12-d- and 24-d-old-with acute respiratory distress and poor response to treatment. Postmortem examination revealed interstitial pneumonia with diffuse alveolar damage and intranuclear inclusion bodies in alveolar macrop...
Global distribution of Neorickettsia risticii, the causative agent of potomac horse fever: a systematic review. Potomac Horse Fever (PHF), also known as equine neorickettsiosis (EN) or equine monocytic ehrlichiosis is an acute, potentially fatal infectious disease in horses caused by the monocytotropic rickettsia bacterium Neorickettsia risticii. This obligate intracellular bacterium is maintained throughout the life cycle of digenetic trematodes which utilize multiple intermediate and definitive hosts. Research on N. risticii is scattered across multiple continents, with most studies originating from North and South America. Therefore, a systematic review is needed to consolidate global evidence, clari...
Prevalence of potential enteric pathogens in diarrheic and non-diarrheic foals in Brazil. Diarrhea is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in foals. Our hypothesis is that foals with diarrhea have a greater prevalence of ≥2 organisms causing coinfections. We investigated the major microorganisms associated with diarrhea in 200 foals up to 1-y-old (100 diarrheic and 100 non-diarrheic). Fecal samples were analyzed by real-time PCR (rtPCR) for the detection of and toxin genes and , (genotyping for toxin-encoding genes), spp., , , , , , and spp. Rotavirus A and coronavirus were detected using reverse-transcription rtPCR. Fecal bacterial culture was also performed for ...
Multiplex Real Time PCR Assay Targeting the eqbE for Rapid Detection and Differentiation of Streptococcus equi from Other Streptococcus Species in Indian Equines. Strangles is a tremendously contagious and chronic infectious disease caused by . The disease compromises the respiratory health of horses and other equines, leading to decreased productivity. The time-consuming culture methods and similarity between and , which can cause opportunistic infections in horses and severe infections in humans, complicate its diagnosis In this study, we applied a multiplex real-time PCR assay on 45 isolates from India, aiming to detect and distinguish it from other species, including . Multiplex real-time PCR using gene of accurately identified all culture-...
Plasmidial virulence of Rhodococcus equi and its implications of livestock infections for human health: a possible foodborne pathogen? Rhodococcus equi, a versatile and adapted opportunistic in nature bacterium, infects animals and humans. This soil-borne microorganism widely occurs in farms. Its dissemination occurs by feces from domestic animals (particularly horses, cattle, and pigs). In the last decades, bacterial virulence has been strongly attributed to plasmid-encoded virulence-associated proteins (VAPs). To date, three virulence plasmid types have been recognized: pVAPA, pVAPB, and pVAPN, which are considered host- or livestock-adapted. The pVAPA type is related to equine isolates (horse-type), the pVAPB type is assoc...
Theileria haneyi: An Emerging Equids Hemoparasite with Milder Virulence but Major Diagnostic and Therapeutic Implications. , a recently discovered tick-borne hemoparasite infecting equids globally, has significant implications for equine health. Although it is closely related to (sharing 23% genomic divergence), it establishes an asymptomatic carrier state in persistently infected horses, creating a silent transmission reservoir. Its discovery and unique genetics justify its classification as a new taxon. A critical diagnostic challenge is that the lack of the gene in prevents its detection by the standard cELISA, emphasizing the need for species-specific tools. Although species-specific PCR assays, including ...
Nationwide Serological Survey of Equine Trypanosomosis in Kazakhstan. Equine trypanosomosis remains an important veterinary concern in regions where horses play a significant economic and cultural role. In Kazakhstan, comprehensive nationwide data on the seroepidemiological status of equine trypanosomes are limited. The aim of this study was to assess the serological distribution of equine trypanosomosis across all administrative regions of Kazakhstan using complement fixation testing (CFT). A total of 6065 equine serum samples were collected from seventeen regions between 2023 and 2025. Antibodies against members of the subgenus were detected using a WOAH-reco...
