The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Hoey S, Fogarty U, McAllister H, Puggioni A, Cloak B, Richard H, Skelly C, Laverty S.Articular cartilage can be directly imaged using ultrasonography. The fetlock is a common site of osteochondrosis, with the sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal bone most commonly affected. In osteochondrosis, cartilage thickening may be an initial finding. This postmortem study investigated the ability of ultrasonography to accurately measure the dorsodistal articular cartilage of the third metacarpal bone in young horses, compared to computed tomographic arthrography (CTA) and histological measurements. A total of 33 metacarpophalangeal joints from 18 horses between the ages of 12 days and...
Argue BJ, Ahern BJ.The veterinary yearling pre-sale repository radiographs have the potential to impact both vendor and prospective purchaser. The primary aim of this study was to determine inter-observer agreement for orthopaedic lesions identified in thoroughbred yearling repository radiographs. A secondary goal was to determine agreement when using a pre-defined risk rating classification. Unassigned: Three experienced specialist equine surgeons (2 ACVS & 1 FANZCVS) interpreted thirty repository radiographs once each for radiographic abnormalities. Each radiographic abnormality was given an associated ris...
König von Borstel U, Kienapfel K, McLean A, Wilkins C, McGreevy P.The article reports a meta-analysis of 58 peer-reviewed studies investigating on dorsoventral hyperflexion of the neck in horses, a practice under substantial public and scientific scrutiny for the past two decades. The following databases were last searched on 28.05.2023: CAB, Google Scholar, Web of Science, NAL/Agricola, PubMed and ScienceDirect. After evaluating the conclusions of each study, we performed statistical analyses to establish a consensus on welfare and performance (performance marks, kinematics and musculoskeletal) outcomes in horses performing with a hyperflexed head and neck ...
Cole RC, DeGraves FJ, Schumacher J, Brown J.To determine the effect of 1.5 mL 2% mepivacaine, 0.75 mL 2% mepivacaine, and a combination of 0.75 mL 2% mepivacaine with epinephrine (1:200,000 solution) administered over each palmar digital nerve (PDN) to 6 horses with naturally occurring lameness caused by digital pain. Methods: In a crossover study design, 6 horses with forefoot-related lameness were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups. Each group received, on different study days, a PDN block using 1.5 mL of 2% mepivacaine, 0.75 mL 2% mepivacaine, or 0.75 mL of a combination of 2% mepivacaine and epinephrine (1:200,000 solution) injected...
Stutsel M, Jordan L, Smith C, Lee WY, Symonds N, Bell R, Young A.Foot-related lameness is common in Standardbred and Thoroughbred racehorses. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides information on both the soft tissue and osseous structures of the distal extremity. The aim of this study was to determine whether abnormalities identified on distal limb MRI differed between these two racehorse populations. Methods: The records of Standardbred and Thoroughbred racehorse distal extremity MRI examinations conducted at Camden Equine Centre and Ballarat Veterinary Practice between 2013 and 2023 were retrieved. Horses were included if pain causing lameness had bee...
Zedda M, Babosova R, Gadau S, Lepore G, Succu S, Farina V.Fractures of long bones in limbs are rare traumatic events in horses. This study investigates whether the incidence and types of fractures can be related to the histomorphometric features of the radius and tibia, which experience different biomechanical stresses and exhibit varying incidences and types of fractures. Clinical observations suggest that, in adults, slightly transverse and comminuted fractures are present in the radius, while the tibia shows a higher frequency of longitudinal and spiral fractures. Microscopic observations reveal no apparent distinctive characteristi...
da Silva NV, Bernardino Júnior R, Nomelini QSS, Pereira GF, Delfiol DJZ, Nogueira GM.The passive stay apparatus works by blocking flexion of the knee and tarsus joints in the horse, preventing muscle fatigue. During ambulation, if this mechanism fails to release, the animal will present upward fixation of the patella, which in severe cases, can only be treated by medial patellar desmotomy (MPD). The objective of this study was to investigate the possible electromyographic and behavioral changes, after the impairment of the passive stay apparatus, in horses who have undergone MPD surgery. Five horses presenting dorsal fixation of the patella underwent electromyographic measurem...
Hosek L, James RJ, Taylor WTT.Among the most widely used methods for understanding human-horse relationships in the archaeological record is the identification of human skeletal pathologies associated with mounted horseback riding. In particular, archaeologists encountering specific bony changes to the hip, femur, and lower back often assert a causal link between these features and prolonged periods of mounted horseback riding. The identification of these features have recently been used to assert the early practice of mounted horseback riding among the Yamnaya culture of western Eurasia during the third and fourth millenn...
Lee S, Shin KY, Lee K, Seo JP.Few studies have investigated the adequate contrast enhancement (CE) evaluation depending on concentration, volume, and rate of administration of contrast media (CM) and the scan parameters in equine contrast enhanced computed tomography (CECT). Objective: To investigate CE of the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) and veins depending on the computed tomography (CT) voltage and concentration, volume, and rate of CM administration during intra-arterial CECT of equine distal forelimbs. Methods: In vivo experiments. Methods: Six horses underwent 54 CT scans. First, the CE of DDFT and veins was eva...
Mata F, Franca I, Araújo J, Paixão G, Lesniak K, Cerqueira JL.Hoof trimming and shoeing determine the horse's hoof shape and balance. Hoof conformation plays a crucial role in limb biomechanics and can consequently prevent or predispose to injury. This study investigated the relationship between the morphometric characteristics of the horse's hoof, specifically, the dorsal hoof wall angle (DHWA), the coronet band circumference (CBC), and lameness in 73 horses categorised as undertaking either show jumping, dressage, or riding school activities. Results from logistic regression indicated that horses with either a combination of acute DHWA with large CBC, ...
Aoun R, Takawira C, Lopez MJ.To provide an overview of available research about effects of horseshoes on equine kinetics and kinematics. Methods: The terms, "horse/equine," "hoof," "shoes/horseshoes," "kinetics," and "kinematics" were searched in PubMed, Web of Science, Center for Agriculture and Bioscience International, and United States Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Library for manuscripts from first availability to 2024. Independent reviewers used preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses guidelines to map and extract evidence-based data from sources. Metrics included partici...
Malekipour F, Whitton RC, Lee PV.This review synthesizes recent advancements in understanding subchondral bone (SCB) biomechanics using computed tomography (CT) and micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging in large animal models, particularly horses. Results: Recent studies highlight the complexity of SCB biomechanics, revealing variability in density, microstructure, and biomechanical properties across the depth of SCB from the joint surface, as well as at different joint locations. Early SCB abnormalities have been identified as predictive markers for both osteoarthritis (OA) and stress fractures. The development of sta...
Tranquille CA, Chojnacka K, Murray RC.There has been little investigation into the health patterns of the eventing horse population outside veterinary clinics. To target health problems in the eventing horse population, it is important to determine the relative impact of different health problems. The objectives were to describe the prevalence and patterns of lameness/illness in registered British eventing horses. An online survey was released for all horses registered with British eventing in 2018. Data were collated and descriptive analyses undertaken. A total of 1677 surveys were completed, among which 49.4% reported a previous...
Nocera I, Di Franco C, Sorvillo B, Aliboni B, Bucchioni E, Sgorbini M, Sala G, Citi S.Ultrasound-guided local anaesthesia is commonly used in veterinary orthopaedics for horses. This study aimed to assess an ultrasound technique for the medial branch of the dorsal branch of the cervical spinal nerves (MB-DBCSNs) in horses and compare the performance of clinicians with different experience levels. Ten healthy, skeletally mature horses were examined using radiographic and ultrasound (US) techniques in the cervical area (C3-C7). Four operators with varying experience conducted US examinations using a 10 MHz linear and 6 MHz curvilinear transducer over ten training sessions. T...
Caure S, Dendauw P, Thesee L, Villedey E, Malinvaud A, Cousty M, Prie V, Horan K, Weller R.There is a paucity of scientific data on the effect of shoeing on equine neck and back kinematics during locomotion over commonly used sand training surfaces. A better appreciation of how alterations at hoof-ground interface influence equine upper body movements is relevant for improving horse's health and performance. Our objectives were to determine the effects of different shoeing conditions on equine neck and back kinematics at walk and trot in straight line over sand. Two-dimensional kinematic video analysis was performed under seven shoeing conditions: front feet shod with aluminum shoes...
White JM, Hibner-Szaltys M, Duz M, Withers JM, Marcatili M.To determine the influence of breed (cob [CB] and non-cob [NC]), obturator type and surgical experience on the number of attempts, time taken and iatrogenic damage (ID) created when entering the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) tenoscopically. Methods: Prospective experimental cadaveric study. Methods: A total of 104 cadaver limbs. Methods: An equal number of randomly selected CB and NC limbs were operated using a conical obturator (OB) or a switching stick (SS) by one boarded (BS) and one resident surgeon (RS). Skin measurements, number of attempts and time taken to enter the DFTS were rec...
Stigson H, Klingegård M.Equestrian sports, also referred to as equestrianism, is practiced all over the world and a popular leisure activity in Sweden. Equestrianism is the country's second-largest youth sport, and previous studies indicate that accidents are common in equestrianism. However, few previous studies have examined acute equestrian injuries leading to permanent medical impairment (PMI). Methods: By using nationwide insurance data comprising all injured equestrians registered in the Swedish Equestrian Federation, the aim was to analyse characteristics of equestrian accidents and particularly injuries leadi...
Hanousek K, Fiske-Jackson A, O'Leary L, Smith RKW.In vivo measurement of limb stiffness and conformation provides a non-invasive proxy assessment of superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) and suspensory ligament (SL) function. Here, we compared it in fore and hindlimbs and after injury. Objective: To compare the limb stiffness and conformation in forelimbs and hindlimbs, changes with age, and following injury to the SDFT and SL. Methods: Retrospective cohort study. Methods: Limb stiffness was calculated using floor scales and an electrogoniometer taped to the dorsal fetlock. The fetlock angle and weight were simultaneously recorded five tim...
Ferlini Agne G, Adamson K, McGlinchey L, Kravchuk O, Santos L, Schumacher J.Accuracy of a median nerve block is normally assessed by testing skin sensitivity on the medial and dorsal aspects of fetlock and pastern. The present study evaluated subjective and objective analysis of skin surface temperature obtained with two different infrared (IR) thermography cameras (a high-end [FLIR P640] and a smartphone IR thermography device [FLIR One®]) before and after anaesthesia of the median nerve. Thermographic images were obtained at 0, 30, 60 and 90 minutes after performing a median nerve block with 2% mepivacaine hydrochloride. The subjective analysis of thermographic ima...
Spriet M, Vandenberghe F.Scintigraphy and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) are both nuclear medicine imaging techniques, providing functional information of the imaged areas. Scintigraphy is a two-dimensional projected imaging technique that was introduced in equine imaging in the late 1970s. Scintigraphy allows imaging of large body parts and can cover multiple areas, remaining the only technique commonly used in horses for whole body imaging. PET is a cross-sectional imaging technique, first used in horses in 2015, allowing higher resolution three-dimensional functional imaging of the equine distal limb. This manu...
Damone J, Bass L, Gadomski B, Rao S, Frank C, Moorman VJ.The equine digital cushion (DC) has been a poorly understood structure regarding its mechanical properties and composition. The objective of this study was to develop a sampling technique and to compare the biomechanical and histologic properties of DC between lame and non-lame forelimbs. Both forefeet from horses with induced carpal lameness were radiographed prior to humane euthanasia. Radiographs were used to guide sample collection of two, post-mortem, midline DC samples, palmar and dorsal, via an 8mm biopsy punch. Samples were subjected to compressive testing to determine elastic modulus....
Amari M, Rabbogliatti V, Ravasio G, Auletta L, Brioschi FA, Riccaboni P, Dell'Aere S, Roccabianca P.Radiofrequency (RF) relieves chronic pain in humans, but it is unexplored in horses affected by chronic lameness. This study aims to describe the technique and the histological effects of ultrasound (US)-guided radiofrequency ablation (RFA) of palmar digital nerves (PDNs) in horse's fetlock and pastern, . Unassigned: After assessing the US anatomy of lateral and medial PDNs in fetlock and pastern ( = 10 horses; 20 forelimbs), US-guided RFA was performed on these sites in cadaveric forelimbs ( = 10) applying four different settings with increasing invasiveness ( = 40 total treatmen...
Carmona JU, Carmona-Ramírez LH, López C.(1) Background: There is increasing interest in the use of platelet-rich plasma and related orthobiologics for the treatment of chronic musculoskeletal disorders in horses; however, there is no information on the bibliometric impact of the literature published in this area. (2) Methods: A bibliometric analysis was performed using the bibliometrix R package by analyzing the documents registered in the WOS and Scopus databases from 2000 to 2024. The included registers were evaluated according to the menu of results from the biblioshiny web app (overview, sources, authors, documents, words, trend...
Dyson S, Quiney L, Phillips K, Zheng S, Aleman M.Radiological observations at the cervicothoracic junction in horses with or without related clinical signs have not been comprehensively described. The aim was to evaluate the seventh cervical (C7) to second thoracic (T2) vertebrae in horses with neck-related clinical signs (neck pain and/or stiffness, neck-related forelimb lameness, or general proprioceptive [spinal] ataxia) and control horses. This prospective analytical cross-sectional study included 127 control horses and 96 cases, examined using standardized clinical and radiological protocols. Univariable logistic regression was used to ...
Nankervis K, Tranquille C, Tacey J, Deckers I, MacKechnie-Guire R, Walker V, Hopkins E, Newton R, Murray R.Repeated exposure to water treadmill (WT) exercise could elicit kinematic responses reflecting adaptation to WT exercise. The study's aim was to compare the responses of a group of sport horses to a standardised WT exercise test (WTSET) carried out at three time points, week 0 (n = 48), week 20 (n = 38), and week 40 (n = 29), throughout a normal training programme incorporating WT exercise. Horses were recruited from the existing client populations of two commercial water treadmill venues for the purpose of this longitudinal, observational study. Limb, back, poll, wither, and pelvic kinematics...
Graham-Thiers PM, Bowen LK.Twelve horses weighing 570 ± 35 kg were split into two groups (standard protein, STD, and balanced protein, BAL) to evaluate the effect of balanced vs. unbalanced protein on muscle mass. Groups were fed grass hay and a 12% CP feed (one formulated for balanced protein). Horses were out of work for 14 wk prior and participated in 1 to 2 h of light-to-moderate exercise 5 d/wk for 12 wk. A 4-d total urine and feces collection period was conducted at the start and end of the study. Urine and feces samples were analyzed for nitrogen (N) to calculate N balance. Muscle mass status was evalua...
Irandoust S, O'Neil LM, Stevenson CM, Franseen FM, Ramzan PHL, Powell SE, Brounts SH, Loeber SJ, Ergun DL, Whitton RC, Henak CR, Muir P.Catastrophic injury has a low incidence but leads to the death of many Thoroughbred racehorses. Objective: To determine sensitivity, specificity, and reliability for third metacarpal condylar stress fracture risk assessment from digital radiographs (DR) and standing computed tomography (sCT). Methods: Controlled ex vivo experiment. Methods: A blinded set of metacarpophalangeal joint DR and sCT images were prepared from 31 Thoroughbreds. Four observers evaluated the condyles and parasagittal grooves (PSG) of the third metacarpal bone for the extent of dense bone and lucency/fissure and assigned...
Spiesz EM, Thorpe CT, Thurner PJ, Screen HRC.Structure-function relationships in tendons are directly influenced by the arrangement of collagen fibres. However, the details of such arrangements in functionally distinct tendons remain obscure. This study demonstrates the use of quantitative polarised light microscopy (qPLM) to identify structural differences in two major tendon compartments at the mesoscale: fascicles and interfascicular matrix (IFM). It contrasts functionally distinct positional and energy storing tendons, and considers changes with age. Of particular note, the technique facilitates the analysis of crimp parameters, in w...
Davidson EJ.Lameness examination is commonly performed in the athletic horse. A skilled lameness diagnostician must have keen clinical and observational skills. Evaluation starts with a detailed history and thorough physical examination. Next, gait evaluation in the moving horse is performed. Lame horses have asymmetrical body movement due to unconscious shift of body weight. Recognition of the resultant head nod and pelvic hike is the basis for lameness diagnosis. Lameness identification is enhanced by circling, limb flexions, and riding. Most lame horses do not exhibit pathognomonic gait characteristics...
Witte H, Biltzinger J, Hackert R, Schilling N, Schmidt M, Reich C, Fischer MS.In three species of small therian mammals (Scandentia: Tupaia glis, Rodentia: Galea musteloides and Lagomorpha: Ochotona rufescens) the net joint forces and torques acting during stance phase in the four kinematically relevant joints of the forelimbs (scapular pivot, shoulder joint, elbow joint, wrist joint) and the hindlimbs (hip joint, knee joint, ankle joint, intratarsal joint) were determined by inverse dynamic analysis. Kinematics were measured by cineradiography (150 frames s(-1)). Synchronously ground reaction forces were acquired by forceplates. Morphometry of the extremities was perfo...
Murphy BA, Wagner AL, McGlynn OF, Kharazyan F, Browne JA, Elliott JA.Circadian rhythms are endogenously generated 24-h oscillations that coordinate numerous aspects of mammalian physiology, metabolism and behaviour. The existence of a molecular circadian clock in equine skeletal muscle has previously been demonstrated. This study investigates how the circadian 24-h expression of exercise-relevant genes in skeletal muscle is influenced by a regular exercise regime. Mid-gluteal, percutaneous muscle biopsies were obtained over a 24-h period from six Thoroughbred mares before and after an 8-week exercise programme. Real-time qPCR assays were used to assess the expr...
Rivero JL, Serrano AL, Henckel P, Agüera E.Triplicate biopsies from three different depths of the gluteus medius muscle were obtained in 36 endurance-raced horses, aged 8.42 +/- 2.85 yr. Twenty of the horses were considered excellent endurance performers according to the mean speed of their three fastest records in endurance events for the past 2 or 3 years, whereas 16 were moderate performers, with a mean racing speed < 12.5 km/h (in 120- to 180-km endurance rides), < 14 km/h (in 80- to 120-km endurance rides), or < 13.5 km/h (in 40- to 60-km endurance rides). Significant differences in muscle fiber type composition and fiber size wer...
Kraft CN, Pennekamp PH, Becker U, Young M, Diedrich O, Lüring C, von Falkenhausen M.Most orthopaedic problems experienced by competitive horseback riders are related to pain in the lower back, hip joint, and hamstring muscles. Riders-especially, show jumpers-are frequently hampered in their performance because of lumbar pain. To date, there has been no research into lumbar disk degeneration in elite competitive riders. Objective: Competitive horseback riding accelerates lumbar disk degeneration. Methods: Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: Fifty-eight elite riders (18 men, 40 women; mean age, 32.4 years) and a control group of 30 nonriding volunteers (17 men...
Bryan K, McGivney BA, Farries G, McGettigan PA, McGivney CL, Gough KF, MacHugh DE, Katz LM, Hill EW.A single bout of exercise induces changes in gene expression in skeletal muscle. Regular exercise results in an adaptive response involving changes in muscle architecture and biochemistry, and is an effective way to manage and prevent common human diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disorders and type II diabetes. However, the biomolecular mechanisms underlying such responses still need to be fully elucidated. Here we performed a transcriptome-wide analysis of skeletal muscle tissue in a large cohort of untrained Thoroughbred horses (n = 51) before and after a bout of high-intensity exe...
Kramer J, Keegan KG, Kelmer G, Wilson DA.To evaluate pelvic movement over a large number of strides in sound horses and in horses with induced hind limb lameness by applying methods to the pelvis that have been described for evaluating vertical head movement in horses with induced forelimb lameness. Methods: 17 adult horses. Methods: Horses were filmed while trotting on a treadmill before and after induction of transient mild and moderate hind limb lamenesses. Vertical pelvic movement was measured by a signal decomposition method. The vertical pelvic signal was decomposed into a periodic component (A1) that occurred at half the strid...
Malekipour F, Whitton C, Oetomo D, Lee PV.Despite the important role of subchondral bone in maintaining the integrity of the overlying articular cartilage, little research has focused on measuring its mechanical behavior, particularly under injurious load conditions such as impact compression. In this study, the stiffness and the absorbed energy of subchondral bone were compared to that of its overlying cartilage by applying impact compression to equine cartilage-bone specimens. Deformations of the cartilage and subchondral bone were examined independently within the cartilage-bone unit by analyzing real-time images of cartilage-bone ...
Muir P, Peterson AL, Sample SJ, Scollay MC, Markel MD, Kalscheur VL.Repetitive bone injury and development of stress fracture is a common problem in humans and animals. The Thoroughbred racehorse is a model in which adaptive failure and associated development of stress fracture is common. We performed a histologic study of the distal end of the third metacarpal bone in two groups of horses: young Thoroughbreds that were actively racing (n = 10) and a group of non-athletic horses (n = 8). The purpose of this study was to determine whether development of articular microcracks was associated with specific alterations to subchondral plate osteocytes. Morphometric ...
Rivero JL, Hill EW.Skeletal muscles in horses are characterised by specific adaptations, which are the result of the natural evolution of the horse as a grazing animal, centuries of selective breeding and the adaptability of this tissue in response to training. These adaptations include an increased muscle mass relative to body weight, a great locomotor efficiency based upon an admirable muscle-tendon architectural design and an adaptable fibre-type composition with intrinsic shortening velocities greater than would be predicted from an animal of comparable body size. Furthermore, equine skeletal muscles have a ...
May SA, Wyn-Jones G.The use of markers placed over the tuber coxae on each side of a horse to aid identification of the relative movement of these structures at the trot, for teaching and research purposes, is described. In each case of hindleg lameness studied, the tuber coxae on the lame side showed a consistent increase in vertical displacement relative to that of the contralateral limb, and a characteristic pattern of movement throughout the stride irrespective of the site or cause of pain.
Ebert DW, Roberts C, Farrar SK, Johnston WM, Litsky AS, Bertone AL.Measurements of absolute total reflectance were recorded from weight-bearing (n=9) and nonweight-bearing (n=9) equine articular cartilage specimens from 300 to 850 nm using a spectrophotometer with integrating sphere attachment. Following correction of measured spectra for interfacial reflections and edge losses, Kubelka-Munk theory was applied to estimate absorption and scattering coefficient, one-dimensional light intensity distribution, and light penetration depth. Kubelka-Munk absorption coefficients ranged from ∼7 cm-1 at 330 nm to ∼1 cm-1 at 850 nm. A localized absorption peak wa...
Roth SP, Brehm W, Groß C, Scheibe P, Schubert S, Burk J.Transforming growth factor beta 3 (TGFβ3) promotes tenogenic differentiation and may enhance tendon regeneration in vivo. This study aimed to apply TGFβ3 absorbed in decellularized equine superficial digital flexor tendon scaffolds, and to investigate the bioactivity of scaffold-associated TGFβ3 in an in vitro model. TGFβ3 could effectively be loaded onto tendon scaffolds so that at least 88% of the applied TGFβ3 were not detected in the rinsing fluid of the TGFβ3-loaded scaffolds. Equine adipose tissue-derived multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) were then seeded on scaffolds loa...
Armstrong RB, Essén-Gustavsson B, Hoppeler H, Jones JH, Kayar SR, Laughlin MH, Lindholm A, Longworth KE, Taylor CR, Weibel ER.The purpose of this study was to describe the relationships between 16 physiological, biochemical, and morphological variables presumed to relate to the oxidative capacity in quadriceps muscles or muscle parts in Standardbred horses. The variables included O2 delivery (blood flow) and mean capillary transit time (MTT) during treadmill locomotion at whole animal maximal O2 consumption (VO2max, 134 +/- 2 ml.min-1 x kg-1), capillary density and capillary-to-fiber ratio, myoglobin concentration, oxidative enzyme activities, glycolytic enzyme activities, fiber type populations, and fiber size. Thes...
Greve L, Pfau T, Dyson S.Equine movement symmetry is changed when turning, which may induce alterations in thoracolumbosacral kinematics; however, this has not previously been investigated. Our objectives were to document thoracolumbar movement in subjectively sound horses comparing straight lines with circles on both reins and to relate these observations to the objectively determined symmetry/asymmetry of hindlimb gait. Fourteen non-lame horses were assessed prospectively in a non-random, cross-sectional survey. The horses were trotted in straight lines and lunged on both reins and inertial sensor data collected at ...
Maliye S, Marshall JF.OBJECTIVE To characterize and describe the compensatory load redistribution that results from unilateral hind limb lameness in horses. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 37 client-owned horses. PROCEDURES Medical records were reviewed to identify horses with unilateral hind limb lameness that responded positively (by objective assessment) to diagnostic local anesthesia during lameness evaluation and that were evaluated before and after diagnostic local anesthesia with an inertial sensor-based lameness diagnosis system. Horses were grouped as having hind limb lameness only, hind limb and...
van Schie HT, Bakker EM, Cherdchutham W, Jonker AM, van de Lest CH, van Weeren PR.To evaluate quantitative ultrasonography for objective monitoring of the healing process and prognostication of repair quality in equine superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendons. Methods: 6 horses with standardized surgical lesions in SDF tendons of both forelimbs. Methods: Healing was monitored for 20 weeks after surgery by use of computerized ultrasonography. Pixels were categorized as C (intact fasciculi), B (incomplete fasciculi), E (accumulations of cells and fibrils), or N (homogenous fluid or cells). Four scars with the best quality of repair (repair group) and 4 scars with the lowest q...
Patterson-Kane JC, Parry DA, Birch HL, Goodship AE, Firth EC.The superficial digital flexor tendon is the most commonly injured tendon in the racing Thoroughbred. Despite the clinical significance of this structure, only limited data exist regarding normal age-related morphology of the tensile units, the collagen fibrils. The age at which these collagen fibrils become mature in composition and structure may be of importance. Consequently, the association of age and collagen fibril crosslink composition, diameter distribution and crimp morphology in the superficial and deep digital flexor tendons of Thoroughbreds up to and including three years of age ha...
Lesimple C, Fureix C, Biquand V, Hausberger M.Questionnaires are a common tool to assess people's opinion on a large scale or to sound them out about their subjective views. The caretakers' opinion about animals' "personality" has been used in many studies. The aim of the present study was to assess whether the owners' subjective evaluation was effective to detect back disorders. Back disorders have been shown to have a high prevalence in working horses. Caretakers from 17 riding schools (1 caretaker/school, 161 horses) were given a questionnaire about their horses' health status, including back disorders. Out of these 161 horses, 59 were...
Votion DM, Fraipont A, Goachet AG, Robert C, van Erck E, Amory H, Ceusters J, de la Rebière de Pouyade G, Franck T, Mouithys-Mickalad A, Niesten A....Limited information exists about the muscle mitochondrial respiratory function changes that occur in horses during an endurance season. Objective: To determine effects of training and racing on muscle oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and electron transport system (ETS) capacities in horses with high resolution respirometry (HRR). Methods: Mitochondrial respiration was measured in microbiopsies taken from the triceps brachii (tb) and gluteus medius (gm) muscles in 8 endurance horses (7 purebred Arabians and 1 crossbred Arabian) before training (T0), after two 10 week training periods (T1, T2)...
Cogger N, Perkins N, Hodgson DR, Reid SW, Evans DL.Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) in racehorses have been identified as the most common cause of lost training days and weeks spent resting at pasture. Several training-, track- and horse-related risk factors have been identified. However, there is no clear understanding of the inter-relationship between these factors. The aim of this longitudinal cohort study was to investigate risk factors for MSI in 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses. Australian Thoroughbred trainers were convenience sampled and enrolled in a 27-month longitudinal cohort study. The study population consisted of all 2-year-old ...
Tanner JC, Rogers CW, Firth EC.There is increasing evidence that exercise early in life has a positive effect on musculoskeletal health. At present, there is little whole population research investigating the effect of racing as 2-year-olds on future racing career. Objective: To investigate the association between attaining training milestones as 2-year-olds with length of career and racing success in Thoroughbred horses in New Zealand. Methods: Retrospective data were obtained of the 2001/02-born Thoroughbred foal crop. The 3 training milestones were: registered with a trainer, trialled and raced. The association of the tr...
Hobbs SJ, Baxter J, Broom L, Rossell LA, Sinclair J, Clayton HM.Since the ability to train the horse to be ambidextrous is considered highly desirable, rider asymmetry is recognized as a negative trait. Acquired postural and functional asymmetry can originate from numerous anatomical regions, so it is difficult to suggest if any is developed due to riding. The aim of this study was therefore to assess symmetry of posture, strength and flexibility in a large population of riders and to determine whether typical traits exist due to riding. 127 right handed riders from the UK and USA were categorized according to years riding (in 20 year increments) and their...
Mathieu-Costello O, Hoppeler H, Weibel ER.Capillary orientation (anisotropy) was compared in hindlimb muscles of mammals of different size and/or different aerobic capacity (dog, goat, pony, and calf). All muscles were fixed by vascular perfusion at sarcomere lengths ranging from 1.5 to 2.7 micron. The ratios of capillary counts per fiber cross-sectional area on two sets of sections (0 and 90 degrees) to the muscle fiber axis were used to estimate capillary anisotropy and the coefficient c(K,0) relating 1) capillary counts on transverse sections (a commonly used parameter to assess muscle capillarity) and 2) capillary length per volum...
Mason MW, Skedros JG, Bloebaum RD.The relative importance that certain strain features, including mode (e.g., tension vs. compression) and magnitude, have in affecting adaptive bone remodeling seen in normal skeletally mature bones remains controversial. The equine radius is used as a model because in vivo strain data show that the mid-to-proximal diaphysis receives a consistent history of predominantly cranial-caudal bending loads, in contrast to the distal diaphysis which receives relatively more torsional loading superimposed on cranial-caudal bending. Medial and lateral cortices serve as control regions because they corres...
Evans DL.The cardiovascular system provides the link between pulmonary ventilation and oxygen usage at the cellular level. During exercise, efficient delivery of oxygen to working skeletal and cardiac muscles is vital for maintenance of ATP production by aerobic mechanisms. The equine cardiovascular response to increased demand for oxygen delivery during exercise contributes largely to the over 35-fold increases in oxygen uptake that occur during submaximal exercise. Cardiac output during exercise increases greatly owing to the relatively high heart rates that are achieved during exercise. Heart rate i...
Hyttinen MM, Holopainen J, van Weeren PR, Firth EC, Helminen HJ, Brama PA.The aim of this study was to record growth-related changes in collagen network organization and proteoglycan distribution in intermittently peak-loaded and continuously lower-level-loaded articular cartilage. Cartilage from the proximal phalangeal bone of the equine metacarpophalangeal joint at birth, at 5, 11 and 18 months, and at 6-10 years of age was collected from two sites. Site 1, at the joint margin, is unloaded at slow gaits but is subjected to high-intensity loading during athletic activity; site 2 is a continuously but less intensively loaded site in the centre of the joint. The degr...
Vergari C, Pourcelot P, Holden L, Ravary-Plumioën B, Gerard G, Laugier P, Mitton D, Crevier-Denoix N.Excessive axial tension is very likely involved in the aetiology of tendon lesions, and the most appropriate indicator of tendon stress state is the true stress, the ratio of instantaneous load to instantaneous cross-sectional area (CSA). Difficulties to measure tendon CSA during tension often led to approximate true stress by assuming that CSA is constant during loading (i.e. by the engineering stress) or that tendon is incompressible, implying a Poisson's ratio of 0.5, although these hypotheses have never been tested. The objective of this study was to measure tendon CSA variation during qua...
