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Topic:Musculoskeletal System
The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Computed Tomographic Lesion Descriptors in Foals With Hematogenous Osteomyelitis: Interobserver Agreement and Association With Outcome. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly used to diagnose osteomyelitis in foals, but the prognostic value and interobserver reproducibility of specific CT lesion descriptors remain unclear. This multicenter retrospective study aimed to characterize CT features of hematogenous osteomyelitis in foals using a structured radiologic feature set, assess interobserver agreement, and evaluate associations between CT descriptors and survival to hospital discharge and long-term survival. We hypothesized that CT features considered aggressive, including a long transition zone, permeative or moth-eaten o...
Walking prior to contrast tenogram radiograph acquisition improves radiological identification of equine digital flexor tendon sheath pathology. the protocol for mobilization of the fetlock region prior to acquiring a contrast tenogram radiograph is not clearly defined. Objective: to determine if walking exercise improves identification of DFTS pathology on contrast tenography. Methods: Prospective cohort study. Nineteen horses that underwent contrast tenography and subsequent surgical tenoscopy were included. A tenogram protocol was developed to enable comparison of diagnostic accuracy after increasing mobilization of the affected limb post-injection. Following contrast injection three tenogram radiographs were taken, (1) immediately ...
Multi-Detector Helical Computer Tomography, Transrectal Ultrasonography and Histology of the Lumbosacral Area: A Comparative Study in Warmblood Horse Cadavers. Pain arising from the lumbosacral region is a recognized cause of poor performance and impaired welfare in horses. However, structural changes in the intertransverse joints (ITJs), lumbar articular process joints (APJs), and lumbosacral intervertebral discs (LSDs) may also occur in asymptomatic horses, complicating interpretation of imaging findings.This study evaluated these structures in 14 middle-aged Warmblood cadavers that were not lame according to the owners prior the onset of the problem that resulted in euthanasia or slaughter and correlated ultrasonographic (US) and computed tomograp...
Mesenchymal stem cells in veterinary clinical practice: Evidence from naturally occurring diseases. Over the past two decades, the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in veterinary medicine has expanded rapidly, although the clinical evidence remains in its early stages. This review discusses clinical studies involving client-owned animals with naturally occurring diseases in which MSCs or MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were used as treatments. It covers musculoskeletal disorders, including osteoarthritis, tendon and ligament injuries, and bone diseases; soft-tissue and oral mucosal conditions; neurological disorders; ophthalmic diseases; and internal medicine disorders, such as i...
Transforming retraining: Supporting racehorses to have successful second careers. Optimizing long-term welfare outcomes for Thoroughbred racehorses following retirement from racing is a priority across the global horse racing industry. Following their racing career, horses are required to adapt to a markedly different lifestyle, involving substantial physical, behavioural, and mental adjustment. This study consulted experienced retrainers to identify factors that inform successful retraining and transition of former racehorses to promote positive lifelong outcomes beyond racing. An online survey of 100 global stakeholders experienced in retraining former racehorses explor...
Alpha-2-Macroglobulin-Enriched Plasma Modulates Inflammatory and Proteolytic Pathways in Experimental Equine Musculoskeletal Models. Joint inflammation and extracellular matrix degradation are major contributors to the development of equine osteoarthritis and reduced athletic performance. Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a naturally occurring broad-spectrum inhibitor of proteases and inflammatory mediators that has emerged as a promising orthobiologic therapy. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory and matrix-protective effects of alpha-2-macroglobulin-enriched plasma in complementary in vitro and ex vivo equine models. Primary equine chondrocytes and synoviocytes isolated from healthy horses were stimulated with interleukin...
Factors affecting veterinary perception of the prevalence of back pain and dysfunction in dogs and horses. The prevalence of back pain in humans has been extensively reported, but in dogs it is unknown. In horses, research on the prevalence of back pain exists, but with reports ranging from 1% to 94%, indicating a data deficiency. Unassigned: Veterinarians were surveyed about their perception of the prevalence of back pain and dysfunction in dogs and horses for 6 different clinical scenarios. The respondents' education background and physical examination techniques were recorded. Unassigned: Perceptions of the prevalence of back pain and dysfunction varied widely both within and between education g...
Thermographic analysis of chiropractic care on the back health of Mangalarga Marchador horses. Poor saddle fit can cause back pain and lesions in horses, highlighting the need for preventive therapies. Objective: To evaluate the effects of chiropractic treatment on the backs of Mangalarga Marchador horses using infrared thermography to monitor thermal changes associated with saddle-induced overload. Methods: Physiological, environmental, thermographic, and chiropractic parameters were evaluated in 13 horses subjected to a standardized 25-min exercise session. Animals were assigned to either a control group (GC, n = 6) or a chiropractic treatment group (GT, n = 7). Assessments were c...
Quantitative Bone Scintigraphic Follow-Up After a 2-Month Cross-Training Program Including Swimming in Showjumping Horses with Back and Neck Pain. To quantitatively describe changes in skeletal radiopharmaceutical uptake during a training program including swimming in horses with neck and back pain, eighteen showjumping horses with documented vertebral lesions were prospectively included in a training program composed of 4 weeks of ridden work and then 8 weeks combining swimming and ridden exercise. Previously published data on this cohort did not demonstrate any clear change in thoracolumbar mobility. Bone scintigraphy was performed at the 4th and 12th weeks. Radiopharmaceutical uptake was quantified in 205 regions of interest (ROIs) an...
A retrospective study of catastrophic pelvic fractures in California Thoroughbred racehorses. Here, we describe and characterize catastrophic pelvic fractures in Thoroughbred racehorses in California. We reviewed retrospectively racehorse autopsy reports from horses that died spontaneously or were euthanized because of complete pelvic fractures in California between 1992 and 2018. The exercise history of affected horses was compared with eventmatched control horses. Catastrophic pelvic fractures were sustained by 133 horses. Pelvic fractures were 2.7% of all musculoskeletal fatalities. Pelvic fractures occurred during training (48.0%), racing (35.0%), and non-exercise (17.0%). Horses â...
Serum Osteocalcin and CTX-I in Fit-to-Race Thoroughbred Racehorses: Reference Intervals and Associations with Demographic, Training, and Lameness-Related Factors. Musculoskeletal injury remains a major welfare and performance concern in Thoroughbred racing, and biomarkers for early risk stratification are of scientific interest. This multicentre observational cohort study characterised serum concentrations of two bone turnover markers, osteocalcin/BGLAP (OC) and C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX-I), in 1359 fit-to-race Thoroughbred racehorses sampled across New South Wales, Victoria, and Western Australia. Biomarker distributions, population-wide percentile ranges, demographic and training-related associations, and short-term soundness outc...
Pelvic axial rotation in hindlimb lame horses changes after diagnostic analgesia. Visual assessment of mild to moderate hindlimb lameness has low sensitivity and specificity, potentially leading to flawed diagnostic procedures. Pelvic axial rotation (roll) makes the assessment more complex but is also a potential source of information. Objective: To describe pelvic roll patterns in horses with unilateral hindlimb lameness before and after diagnostic analgesia. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Optical motion capture data from 20 horses with unilateral hindlimb lameness before and after successful local analgesia (assessed visually and objectively) were retrospectively ...
Longitudinal, Objective Fan-Beam Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Distal Third Metacarpal Bone in 31 Non-Lame Showjumpers. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly used in equine lameness diagnosis, but no objective CT findings have been documented in the fetlock of sport horses. The aim of this study was to describe the pattern and longitudinal changes of densification in the distal third metacarpal bone (McIII) in non-lame showjumpers using CT measurements. Fan-beam CT examination of both metacarpophalangeal regions was performed in 31 non-lame showjumpers in regular work, at four examinations (times 0-3) on 27, 21 and 10 horses, respectively, with a median interval of 10 months. Mean Hounsfield unit (HU) values...
Musculoskeletal examination of the hind limb of the horse. The intention of this tutorial video is to illustrate the methods of examining the hind limb and back of a horse in order to identify abnormalities that may be associated with lameness or disease. Unassigned: An 18-year-old quarter horse stallion was used for examination. Unassigned: The horse was examined for abnormalities using physical examination. Unassigned: The examination of the hind limb and epaxial region of the horse was successfully completed. Unassigned: The techniques described are required to identify abnormalities in the equine hind limb and can be utilized during a lameness exa...
Cord blood mesenchymal stromal cells combined with hyaluronic acid show symptom-modifying and potential disease-modifying effects in an equine osteoarthritis fetlock chip model. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a major cause of lameness in horses, and current therapies largely address clinical signs rather than disease progression. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have shown promise as disease-modifying biologics, but their effects on joint structure and immunologic phenotype remain incompletely characterized. Unassigned: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of pooled cryopreserved equine umbilical cord blood-derived MSCs (eCB-MSCs) combined with hyaluronic acid (HA) for surgically induced fetlock OA in horses, using integrated clinical, imaging, and synovial biomarker outcomes....
Eight Weeks of 448 kHz Radiofrequency Therapy Increases Multifidus Muscle Cross-Sectional Area and Modulates Thoracolumbar Range of Motion in Horses with Chronic Back Pain. We aimed to investigate the effects of an 8-week 448 kHz radiofrequency (RF) on multifidus cross-sectional area (CSA) and thoracolumbar differential range of motion (ROM). Eight Thoroughbred horseball horses received four RF treatments (T9-L6) at 2-week intervals. Multifidus CSA (T10-L5) and differential spinal ROM between the withers (W), T13, T18, L3 and sacrum (S) were measured before treatment, immediately after the first session, 24 h after the first session, and at 8 weeks (15 days after the last session). Linear mixed models with Tukey post hoc comparisons were used. Significant effects...
Cryopreserved umbilical allograft (equicenta® CTM) improves clinical outcomes compared with clinician-selected standard of care in performance horses: a pragmatic prospective controlled trial. This multicenter, prospective, controlled clinical study and client survey evaluated the safety and effectiveness of an equine umbilical tissue suspension (equicenta® CTM; eCTM, 2:1) compared with clinician-selected standard of care (SOC) for treating lame performance horses. Unassigned: This pragmatic, real-world, open-label study enrolled horses diagnosed with appendicular musculoskeletal conditions affecting the joints, tendons, or ligaments under owner consent and an intention-to-treat design with an optional crossover after no improvement at 12 weeks and per-protocol analyses at 26 ...
Ultrasonographic assessment of in utero fetal presentation, position and posture can be essential: case report. The objectives of this clinical case report were to highlight the value of late transrectal ultrasound examination for assessing fetal presentation, position and posture and to describe the management of a case of malposture associated with musculoskeletal and cerebellar abnormalities, including its in utero ultrasound diagnosis and outcome. A 7-year-old Gypsy Vanner mare, 339 days pregnant, was diagnosed with the presence of a bony fetal structure cranial to the cervix, without palpable head or limbs and minimal fetal movement. Transrectal ultrasound examination was instrumental in diagnosing...
Species-specific effects of spinal stiffness on gait and actuation-cost proxy in simulated cheetah and horse galloping. Cursorial quadrupeds employ distinct mechanical strategies for high-speed locomotion, with felids relying more strongly on axial motion than equids. The biomechanical role of spinal stiffness, however, is difficult to isolate experimentally because it is coupled to limb mechanics, morphology, and coordination. Here, we used comparative three-dimensional trajectory optimization to test how spinal stiffness influences gait mechanics and actuation-demand proxies in simulated cheetah-like and horse-like galloping. Homologous cheetah and horse models were evaluated across spinal-stiffness values, p...
Evaluation of Microvascular Flow Imaging and Power Doppler Ultrasonography in an Equine Model of Induced Superficial Digital Flexor Tendonitis. Superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injuries are common in athletic horses and are associated with prolonged healing and high reinjury rates. Conventional ultrasonography provides structural information but limited physiologic assessment. This study compared microvascular imaging (MVI) and Power Doppler (PD) for evaluating vascular changes in a collagenase-induced equine SDFT injury model and assessed the effect of scanning technique on vascular signal detection. Eight adult Thoroughbred horses underwent bilateral collagenase-induced SDFT injury, with one forelimb randomly assigned to int...
A postmortem grading system for articular cartilage loss of the dorsoproximal aspect of the proximal phalanx of Thoroughbred racehorses. The metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints in Thoroughbred racehorses are common injury sites, given their high range of motion and compression during galloping. In New Zealand, the proximal phalanx (P1) is a common site for race-day fracture, but the lesions of this bone have not been described. Therefore, we created a scoring system to describe cartilage on the dorsoproximal aspect of P1 in New Zealand Thoroughbred racehorses. We collected 102 P1s from racehorses submitted for postmortem examination. Horses were categorized into 2 cohorts: 1) fracture (18 horses euthanized becaus...
Equine nuclear medicine: Current state of play. Equine nuclear medicine provides functional information on bone turnover, perfusion, inflammation and tracer biodistribution. Its role has evolved from planar scintigraphy toward SPECT, PET and quantitative imaging. This review synthesised the historical foundations and contemporary state of equine nuclear medicine, with emphasis on racehorse and performance-horse applications. Methods: A PRISMA-aligned systematic narrative review and evidence map were undertaken. MEDLINE via PubMed, Web of Science Core Collection and SciQuest were searched, supplemented by reference-list screening, forward ci...
Ceratohyoidectomy for Management of Unilateral and Bilateral Temporohyoid Osteoarthropathy: Long-Term Outcome in 33 Equids. Temporohyoid osteoarthropathy is a disease affecting the temporohyoid joint in equids caused by local inflammation and/or degeneration, leading to neurological deficits ranging from mild signs that affect performance to significant, acute neurological deficits such as facial nerve paralysis or vestibular signs. Multiple surgical treatment options are available, and while treatment has historically been performed unilaterally on the side of the clinical signs, advances in diagnostic imaging have highlighted the occurrence of bilateral disease of the temporohyoid joints, warranting evaluation of...
Effects of TECAR Therapy on Body Surface Temperature and Longissimus Dorsi Muscle Tone in Thoroughbred Racehorses: A Pilot Study. Capacitive and resistive electric transfer (TECAR) therapy is increasingly used in equine physiotherapy; however, objective evidence regarding its immediate effects on equine back muscles remains limited. This pilot study aimed to evaluate the effects of TECAR therapy on body surface temperature and muscle tone of the longissimus dorsi muscle in Thoroughbred racehorses. A randomized, single-blinded experimental study was conducted in 20 clinically healthy Thoroughbred racehorses aged 2-3 years. Horses were randomly assigned to either a TECAR treatment group ( = 10) or a sham-treatment control ...
Effects of IGF1 Knockdown and Overexpression on the Phenotype and Function of Equine Primary Skeletal Muscle Cells. Skeletal muscle serves as the direct executor of movement, and the proliferation and migration capacities of its constituent cells represent the key physiological foundation determining equine endurance and speed. Previous whole-transcriptome analysis has shown that Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 () is significantly upregulated in following racing and is involved in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway; however, its specific regulatory mechanism in equine skeletal muscle cells remains unclear. This study utilized primary equine skeletal muscle cells as a model. By constructing an overexpression plas...
Anatomopathological aspects of osteoarticular lesions associated with Rhodococcus equi infection in two foals. Rhodococcus equi is an important bacterium that affects foals up to six months of age, especially those that are immunocompromised. The main manifestation is pyogranulomatous pneumonia; nevertheless, extrapulmonary lesions have not only been reported, but are not uncommon, including arthritis and osteomyelitis. Despite the widespread occurrence of rhodococcosis, the macro- and microscopic lesions in the musculoskeletal system are still poorly understood, and a detailed study is needed to better understand the pathogenic potential of the organism. The aim of this report is to present the anatom...
In-Hand Training of Piaffe and Passage with Leg Stimulation: A Literature-Based Biomechanical Argument for Why This Method Fails to Produce True Collection. In-hand training of piaffe and passage via tactile leg stimulation (Handarbeit mit Touchieren) is widely practised in dressage, yet consistently produces horses that elevate their legs without achieving collection - a pattern termed Schenkelgänger (leg-movers) in classical German equitation. Based on published kinetic, kinematic, and electromyographic literature, this review argues that tactile leg stimulation activates the spinal nociceptive withdrawal reflex, an unloading movement mechanistically opposed to the elastic tendon rebound and ventral muscular chain activation that define true co...
The Peridental Structures of Equine Cheek Teeth: An Age-Dependent Anatomical Study of Maxilla and Mandible. Sequestration is the most common complication following equine cheek tooth extraction, occurring predominantly in the mandible of younger horses. Extraction-related trauma to the peridental region may impair healing. Despite its clinical relevance, detailed knowledge of peridental anatomy remains limited. This study investigated age-related differences in the peridental region of maxillary and mandibular equine cheek teeth 07 to 09. The peridental region of 24 cheek teeth rows from six cadaver heads was sectioned horizontally at approximately 10 mm intervals. Sections were photographed and the...
Limited Effects of High-Intensity Laser Therapy on Clinical and Radiographic Outcomes in Three-Year-Old Arabian Racehorses with Dorsal Metacarpal Disease. Dorsal metacarpal disease (DMD) is a common musculoskeletal injury in young racehorses, and effective non-invasive treatments remain of clinical interest. This study aimed to evaluate whether high-intensity laser therapy (HILT), which was applied as the sole intervention in horses retired from training, reduces the clinical signs of DMD compared with untreated controls. During the 2023-2024 racing seasons, 15 Arabian racehorses diagnosed with DMD were enrolled; 9 received HILT and 6 served as controls without laser therapy. The treatment protocol consisted of five daily HILT sessions followed ...
Anatomical Insights Into the Equine Cervical Intervertebral Foramina: Implications for Veterinary Practice. The equine cervical intervertebral foramina (IVF) represent vital anatomical regions facilitating the passage of spinal nerves and associated vasculature. An in-depth understanding of their anatomy is imperative for the safe implementation of diagnostic and surgical interventions. Despite their clinical significance, anatomical descriptions of the equine cervical IVF remain under-characterised in the existing literature, particularly in relation to the needs of equine veterinary surgeons. Our study provides comprehensive anatomical analysis of the IVF at the cervical vertebral levels C5/C6 and...
