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Topic:Musculoskeletal System
The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Outcome following lag screw fixation of non-C3 carpal slab fractures in horses. To describe clinical features and short- and long-term outcomes of horses treated with lag screw fixation of slab fractures of the radial carpal (Cr), intermediate carpal (Ci), ulnar carpal (Cu), second (C2) or fourth (C4) carpal bones. Methods: Retrospective case study. Methods: Horses (n = 19) treated with lag screw fixation for slab fractures of Cr, Ci, Cu, C2 or C4. Methods: Medical records of patients with carpal slab fractures were reviewed, and those undergoing internal fixation of slab fractures involving Cr, Ci, Cu, C2, or C4 carpal bones from January 2008 to January 2026 were inc...
Medical Therapies for the Treatment of Osteoarthritis in the Horse – 20 years later…. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a debilitating joint disease, characterized by a degenerative catabolic cascade resulting in detrimental changes to all aspects of the joint including the irreversible destruction of articular cartilage. In 2006, a narrative review by Goodrich and Nixon outlined the available treatments for the medical management of OA; however, since that time substantial progress has been made. In recent years the therapeutic options for veterinarians managing horses with OA has increased significantly with a multitude of products available on the market. While many of the conventional...
Heel movement and foot biomechanics in aluminium nail-on and indirect glue-on fabric cuff shoes in horses. Heel movement is critical to shock absorption and vascular perfusion of the equine digit. Conventional horseshoeing techniques are suspected to restrict natural hoof deformation, affecting hoof biomechanics. Several studies have explored the effects of shoeing on hoof function, though many have been limited to artificial conditions, cadavers, or homogenous populations. Objective: We aimed to compare the effects of two aluminium shoeing techniques, nail-on versus indirect glue-on fabric cuff shoes, on heel movement in horses. Our objective was to determine which technique allowed greater heel m...
[Atlantoaxial luxation in a neonatal Warmblood foal]. Atlantoaxial luxation represents a rare but clinically relevant differential diagnosis in neonatal foals presenting with neurological abnormalities or dysphagia. This case report describes a newborn filly without apparent ataxia, but presenting with a stiff head-neck posture and milky nasal discharge. Clinical examination revealed a compromised general condition and abnormal swelling in the region of the fossa retromandibularis. Radiographic examination confirmed the diagnosis of an atlantoaxial luxation. Due to the poor prognosis the foal was euthanized. This case highlights the diagnostic ap...
A generalized additive model using kinematic and demographic data provides an accurate and objective anesthesia recovery score in horses. To analyze kinematic data extracted from an inertial measuring unit to assess quality of recovery in horses emerging from general anesthesia. Unassigned: Horses undergoing anesthesia from February 2024 through March 2026 were enrolled in this study. Collected data from the inertial measuring unit included 3-axis acceleration, angular velocity, and orientation. Recoveries were evaluated by 3 scorers using a modified composite grading scale. The mean of the scores was used as the dependent variable. A Python pipeline was written to detect attempts to stand using the first derivative of the accel...
Balancing training load, rest and musculoskeletal injury risk: a mathematical modelling study in Thoroughbred racehorses. Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) in Thoroughbred racehorses are a leading cause of death and premature retirement, and are heavily influenced by training practices. Greater distances of high-speed galloping accumulated during racing campaigns are associated with MSI. Bone injury is the most common MSI, and understanding how training practices influence bone damage accumulation is critical for improving both horse welfare and racing outcomes. This study builds on an existing mathematical model of bone adaptation and damage to investigate the impact of different training programmes on bone injury ...
Cervical articular process joint versus ventral cervical stabilization in horses: A biomechanical study. To determine the biomechanical properties and modes of failure of a single level equine cervical spine immobilized with unilateral or bilateral articular process joint (APJ) stabilization, ventral cervical stabilization (VCS) and non-stabilized controls. Methods: Ex vivo experimental study. Methods: A total of 24 equine cadaver cervical spines. Methods: Cervical spinal units (C4-C5) were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 6/group): unilateral APJ stabilization, bilateral APJ stabilization, VCS using pedicle screws and rod constructs, or non-stabilized. Non-destructive testing assessed k...
Novel serum biomarkers provide evidence for an involvement of the CCL3:CCL5 axis in fatal musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses. Fatal musculoskeletal (MSK) injuries in Thoroughbred (TB) racehorses adversely affect equine welfare, negatively impact public acceptance of horse racing, and cause severe economic losses for the racing industry. Biomarker assays predicting the risk of MSK injuries are currently not available. Our hypothesis was that immune system and inflammatory markers are indicators of fatal MSK injuries in TB racehorses. Unassigned: Serum samples from TB racehorses with fatal (n = 44) and nonfatal injuries (63) were collected. Serum from 2- to 5-year-old TBs submitted for annual equine infectious anemia t...
Changes in hoof morphology in racing Thoroughbreds during a period of ninety days unshod. Low hoof angles and discrepancies in the dorsal heel are linked to musculoskeletal breakdown, suspensory apparatus failure, and retirement in Thoroughbred racehorses. Evidence-based research on correcting hoof adaptations is limited, which leads to a reliance on therapeutic shoeing. Unassigned: This study aimed to test the hypothesis that morphological changes occur during active unshod training and that trimming immediately affects hoof angles. Unassigned: This is a controlled, quantitative, longitudinal study that uses a convenience sample. Unassigned: A total of 36 racehorses were divided i...
Low-Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging Features of Axial Proximal Sesamoid Osteomyelitis and Intersesamoidean Ligament Rupture in a Horse. A 7-year-old Warmblood mare used for show jumping was evaluated for progressive left hindlimb lameness of 5 weeks' duration, localized clinically to the metatarsophalangeal region. Radiography revealed ill-defined osteolysis of the axial apical regions of both proximal sesamoid bones (PSBs). Due to rapid clinical deterioration, low-field magnetic resonance imaging was performed and demonstrated aggressive axial osteomyelitis of both PSBs, partial rupture of the intersesamoidean ligament and proximal scutum with herniation of synovium of the plantar joint recess, and an occult penetrating tract...
Effect of volume for injection of the 15th to 16th thoracic interspinous space: An ex vivo study. Impinging (overriding) spinous processes (ISPs) are commonly identified in horses with back pain. Diagnostic analgesia is widely used as the clinical reference standard for confirming association with clinical signs of back pain, but the specificity of dorsal spinous region diagnostic analgesia remains poorly understood. Objective: To evaluate the specificity of a midline thoracic interspinous space injection in cadaveric horses using three injectate volumes, assessed by computed tomography (CT) and anatomical dissection. Methods: Ex vivo experimental study. Methods: The T15-T16 interspinous s...
The Impact of Track Incline on Musculoskeletal Injuries in Thoroughbred Racehorses in Training: A Retrospective Cohort Study of Fractures on Flat and Uphill Woodchip Surfaces. While race-day musculoskeletal injuries are well-documented, a considerable gap exists regarding fractures sustained during training, where Thoroughbred racehorses accumulate the majority of their high-speed exercise. In Japan, compliant woodchip tracks are frequently used, and uphill track geometries are a foundational element of conditioning. Objective: To quantify and describe the incidence and anatomical distribution of fractures occurring during training on flat versus uphill woodchip tracks over a 15-year period (2008-2022). Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted using centr...
Serum osteocalcin is associated with scintigraphic abnormalities in lame and clinically sound racehorses. Musculoskeletal injury is a major welfare and economic challenge in racehorses, with stress-related bone injury contributing to training interruption and catastrophic failure. Advanced imaging modalities can detect early skeletal pathology but remain limited in routine screening environments. Circulating biomarkers of bone turnover may provide complementary indicators of skeletal remodelling but require validation against objective imaging findings. Objective: Evaluate whether osteocalcin (OC) and C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX), or the CTX/OC ratio, are associated with scintig...
Distal limb wraps produce gait- and material-dependent post-exercise changes in stride timing and limb kinematics in horses. Distal limb wraps are widely used during equine exercise, but their effects on post-exercise kinematics and movement symmetry remain poorly defined. Objective: To determine whether elastic and fleece distal limb wraps alter temporal stride variables, distal limb kinematics, and axial movement symmetry after standardised round-pen exercise. Methods: Six adult horses completed a prospective crossover study with three conditions: no wraps, elastic wraps, and fleece wraps. Wraps were applied bilaterally to all distal limbs at an initial pressure of 20 mmHg. After 20 minutes of free round-pen exerc...
Diagnostic Performance of Digital Tomosynthesis for Detecting Osteophytes and Subchondral Bone Changes in the Equine Distal Interphalangeal and Metacarpophalangeal Joints. Osteoarthritis is a common cause of equine lameness and can involve periarticular osteophytes and subchondral bone (SB) changes. This exploratory ex vivo study evaluated the diagnostic performance of digital tomosynthesis (DT) for detecting these findings in the distal interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joints, using computed tomography (CT) classifications as the reference. Sixteen distal forelimbs from nine adult horses underwent imaging with both modalities under simulated weight-bearing conditions. Three independent observers graded osteophytes and SB changes, and the scores were dich...
Prolyl-Hydroxyproline Promotes Structural Matrix Organization in 3D Equine Tendon Proper and Peritenon Post-Injury Model. Tendinopathy of the superficial digital flexor tendon affects horse health and performance, with slow healing and high re-injury rates due to the formation of mechanically weaker scar tissue. Tendons are rich in Type I collagen and may benefit from supplementation with collagen-derived dipeptide prolyl hydroxyproline (H-Pro-Hyp-OH) which improves collagen regeneration and reduces scarring in murine injury models. However, its effects on equine tenocytes in the tendon proper (TP) and peritenon (PERI) under stress are unknown. Three-dimensional fibrin-based TP and PERI constructs were used to ev...
Return to riding after open reduction internal fixation of acute clavicle fractures in professional horse jockeys. High-velocity, traumatic fracture of the clavicle is one of the most common injuries suffered by professional horse jockeys. Operative fixation represents the mainstay of treatment in this cohort. Despite this, there remains a paucity of evidence to guide post-operative recovery and time to return to riding. Accordingly, the aim of the present study was to establish the safety and efficacy of open reduction internal fixation (ORIF) of acute clavicle fractures in professional horse jockeys. Methods: A prospectively maintained database was used to retrospectively identify professional horse jock...
Simplified ultrasound-guided technique improves accuracy of median nerve perineural injection compared to “blind” techniques in equine ex vivo specimens. To assess the feasibility of a simplified ultrasound-guided technique (SUGT) for perineural injection of the median nerve ex vivo, to determine and compare the accuracy of 3 techniques for perineural injection of the median nerve (SUGT, "blind" proximal, and "blind" distal), and to evaluate and compare the dye distribution following perineural injection of the median nerve following each technique. Unassigned: This was an ex vivo experimental study performed on thoracic limbs (from April through October 2025). Simplified ultrasound-guided technique and blind proximal were performed in paired l...
Diagnostic Accuracy of Scintigraphy for Detecting Morphological Variation of the Sixth Cervical Vertebral Ventral Lamina in Horses: A Retrospective Study. Morphological variations or transposition of the ventral lamina of the sixth cervical vertebra (C6) are well documented in horses. Radiography remains the primary modality for identifying these osseous variations, whereas scintigraphy provides a functional assessment of bone activity; however, its diagnostic accuracy for this condition has not been established. This retrospective single-center study evaluated the diagnostic performance of scintigraphy compared with radiography for detecting C6/C7 ventral laminar anomalies and determined an optimal C6:C7 uptake ratio cutoff. Thirty-four horses ...
Musculoskeletal Assessment of Forelimbs and Hindlimbs in Mounted Police Horses using Infrared Thermography. Infrared thermography (IRT) has become established as a complementary tool in equine veterinary medicine, allowing for the early detection of thermal changes associated with musculoskeletal inflammatory processes. Objective: This study aimed to apply infrared thermography to characterize the surface thermal profile of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of mounted police horses, considering clinical classification, anatomical region, body side, and repeated evaluations over time. Methods: The research was conducted at the Military Police Cavalry in Manaus (AM), Brazil, involving 20 adult horses submit...
Context-aware machine learning for lameness side and severity prediction in trotting horses: A proof-of-concept study. In clinical practice, lameness evaluation often relies on visual assessment under different examination conditions, including ground and figures, and remains subjective. Although objective symmetry indices provide quantitative measures of gait asymmetry, their interpretation across multiple conditions remains challenging because several complementary indices are required and their thresholds vary with context. Objective: To assess the ability of a context-aware machine learning approach to predict lameness side and severity at the trot using trunk-mounted IMUs. Methods: Retrospective observati...
Single-cell sequencing reveals synovial fluid γδ T-cell expansion in equine experimental osteoarthritis. Define temporal cellular changes following joint injury using single-cell RNA sequencing in experimental equine posttraumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). Unassigned: PTOA was induced in 4 Quarter Horses (3 to 5 years) via carpal osteochondral fragmentation and high-speed treadmill exercise. Synovial fluid (SF) cells and synovium were sampled over 18 weeks (November 2023 to April 2024). Single-cell suspensions were processed (10x Genomics Chromium iX), then aligned to the equine genome (Cell Ranger). Downstream analysis was completed in the R Seurat package. Differential gene expression (log2[fold c...
Differential rotational and translational movements along the thoraco-lumbo-sacral spine of load and non-load pulling military and police horses walking and trotting on hard and soft surfaces. To improve detection of equine back-related disorders, it is important to establish how movement dynamics in horses' thoraco-lumbo-sacral spine are normally affected by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. This cross-sectional study aimed to quantify how discipline, gait, and surface impact differential rotational and translational movements along the backs of 107 horses from the military and police forces. The horses were walked and trotted in-hand in a straight-line over hard and soft surfaces. During the exercises, nine inertial sensors (XSens MTw) were mounted to the poll, withers, thoracic ve...
Promises and Perspectives of Mesenchymal Stromal Cells in Companion and Farm Animals. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) are heterogeneous, multipotent cell populations that have become one of the most extensively investigated cell types in veterinary regenerative medicine. They can be isolated from a wide range of adult and perinatal tissues and have attracted considerable interest because of their immunomodulatory properties, broad secretory activity, and potential to promote tissue repair. However, increasing evidence indicates that MSCs should not be regarded as a uniform therapeutic product, as their biological behaviour is influenced by tissue source, donor characteristics,...
Diagnostic and Therapeutic Standing Needle Arthroscopy of the Distal Interphalangeal Joint in 36 Horses. The objective of this study is to describe the technique, complications, and outcomes of standing needle arthroscopy of the distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ) in horses. Unassigned: This is a retrospective study. Unassigned: Five cadaver forelimbs; 36 client-owned horses. Unassigned: A 1.9-mm needle arthroscope was used to evaluate the DIPJ in cadaver limbs and clinical cases. Horses underwent diagnostic and/or therapeutic arthroscopy under standing sedation and local anaesthesia. Data collected included signalment, diagnostic imaging findings, intraoperative findings, complications, and outc...
Use of wooden shoes for the treatment of chronic laminitis in an American quarter horse. An 11-year-old American quarter horse mare with bilateral forelimb lameness was examined at a mixed-animal veterinary clinic. Radiographs revealed rotation and distal displacement of the 3rd phalanx in each front foot, confirming chronic laminitis. Wooden shoes (Steward Clogs) were used successfully to manage the lameness. The findings from this case support the use of wooden shoes as part of the treatment of chronic laminitis in a general veterinary practice setting. Utilisation de sabots pour le traitement de la fourbure chronique chez un quarter horse américainUne jument quarter horse amé...
Hidden Tarsal Lesions: The Role of Flexed and Oblique Radiographs in Young Horses. Radiographically apparent tarsal lesions associated with developmental orthopedic disease and joint sepsis are common in young horses. Standard radiographic projections are routinely used to identify osseous changes but may fail to detect lesions due to superimposition and complex anatomy. This retrospective case series describes plantar trochlear ridge lesions in young horses that were not identified on standard four projection radiograph series but were detected using flexed lateromedial and flexed oblique projections. Cases were selected based on persistent clinical signs localizing to the ...
An exploratory comparative analysis of kinematic characteristics in two elite Chinese show jumping riders. Three-dimensional rider kinematics across jumping phases and obstacle heights remain sparsely documented in elite Chinese show jumping. This exploratory case study examined angle-related kinematic characteristics in two elite Chinese riders under field-based jumping conditions. Unassigned: Three-dimensional video-based kinematic analysis was performed using the Simi Motion 3D system with direct linear transformation (DLT)-based camera calibration and three-dimensional reconstruction of selected anatomical landmarks. Two elite male riders rode the same experienced horse over the second vertical...
Spatial and temporal radiation exposure during equine bone scintigraphy: Implications for occupational safety and post-scintigraphy isolation. Bone scintigraphy is a valuable diagnostic modality in equine orthopaedics, but it is associated with occupational radiation exposure and regulatory requirements for post-procedural isolation. Objective: To quantify radiation dose rates emitted from horses undergoing bone scintigraphy, to evaluate the effects of distance (spatial) and time (temporal) on radiation exposure, and to derive evidence-based recommendations for post-scintigraphy isolation periods. Methods: Prospective, cross-sectional study. Methods: Twenty warmblood horses underwent musculoskeletal scintigraphy following intravenous...
Limb position, not exercise or sedation, affects power Doppler neovascularization detection in equine superficial digital flexor tendon core lesions. To determine the effect of limb position, exercise, and sedation on neovascularization detectability with the use of power Doppler ultrasonography (PDU) in superficial digital flexor tendon core lesions of the equine forelimb. Unassigned: 9 Thoroughbred horses with superficial digital flexor tendon core tendinopathies were assessed with PDU before lesion induction (week 0) and 12 weeks after lesion induction, with 5 horses in the study period ranging from January to April 2024 and 4 horses from January to April 2025. During weeks 0 and 12, ultrasound examinations were performed 24 hours apart,...
