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Topic:Physiology
The physiology of horses encompasses the study of the biological functions and processes that occur within the equine body. This includes the examination of various systems such as the cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, digestive, and nervous systems. Understanding equine physiology is essential for comprehending how horses adapt to different environmental conditions, perform physical activities, and respond to health challenges. Research in this field often focuses on the mechanisms of energy metabolism, thermoregulation, and muscle function during exercise, as well as the physiological responses to stress and disease. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the diverse aspects of equine physiology, providing insights into the biological processes that support the health and performance of horses.
The combination of BMP12 and KY02111 enhances tendon differentiation in bone marrow-derived equine mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-eMSCs). The Wingless and Int-1 (WNT) and bone morphogenic protein/growth differentiation factor (BMP/GDF) signalling pathways contribute significantly to the development of the musculoskeletal system. The mechanism by which they contribute is as follows: BMP/GDF signalling usually promotes tendon differentiation, whereas WNT signalling inhibits it. We hypothesised that inhibiting WNT and subsequently stimulating BMP signalling may enhance the tenogenic differentiation of stem cells. The objective of this study was to determine whether a combination of WNT inhibitor (KY02111) and BMP12/GDF7 protein cou...
No Morphological Integration of Dorsal Profiles in the Araucanian Horse (Colombia). The aim of this research was to determine if the division between the cervical, dorsal, and croup profiles (three regions commonly assessed for descriptive profile purposes) has a modular basis as well as a morphological integration. For this, a total of 135 digital photographs were obtained, in a lateral view, of adult horses (14 females and 121 geldings; age range: 2-20 years), of the Araucanian breed, an equine population typical of the flooded savannah of Arauca, NE Colombia. From each image, 25 reference points (semi-landmarks) were obtained at the dorsal level of the neck, back, and crou...
Influence of Short and Medium Distance Road Transport on the Acute Phase Proteins in Horses. Horse transport is a common practice and is usually associated as a cause of stress in animals, with consequences for their well-being. There are several of evidence that stress can increase an acute phase response. The aim of this study was to verify whether the road transport of horses over distances of 50 and 300 kilometers induces changes in the values of acute phase proteins. To do this, the serum SDS-PAGE was performed and the bands obtained were identified by mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF). The blood samples were collected in tubes without anticoagulant to obtain the serum, and the evalu...
Anatomical features for an adequate choice of the experimental animal model in biomedicine: III. Ferret, goat, sheep, and horse. The anatomical characteristics of each of the many species today employed in biomedical research are very important when selecting the correct animal model(s), especially for conducting translational research. In previous papers, these features have been considered for fish (D'Angelo et al., 2016), the most common laboratory rodents, rabbits, and pigs (Lossi et al. 2016). I here follow this line of discussion by dealing with the importance of proper knowledge of ferrets, goats, sheep, and horses' main anatomical features in translational research.
Nitric oxide synthase inhibition reveals differences in the nitric oxide pathway in previously laminitic ponies. Previously laminitic (PL) ponies are reported to have higher blood pressure than non laminitic (NL) ponies. This relative hypertension may be related to endothelial cell dysfunction, similar to humans with metabolic syndrome. To investigate the relationship between laminitis predisposition and endothelial dysfunction, the effect of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibition on the change in circulating nitric oxide (NO) concentrations and systemic blood pressure (BP) was determined. An intravenous NO sensor was used to measure changes in blood NO concentration during and after intravenous infusion...
Molecular Mechanism of Equine Endometrosis: The NF-κB-Dependent Pathway Underlies the Ovarian Steroid Receptors’ Dysfunction. Endometrosis is a frequently occurring disease decreasing mares' fertility. Thus, it is an important disease of the endometrium associated with epithelial and stromal cell alterations, endometrium gland degeneration and periglandular fibrosis. Multiple degenerative changes are found in uterine mucosa, the endometrium. However, their pathogenesis is not well known. It is thought that nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), a cell metabolism regulator, and its activation pathways take part in it. The transcription of the profibrotic pathway genes of the NF-κB in fibrotic endometria differed between the fo...
Detection of Horse Locomotion Modifications Due to Training with Inertial Measurement Units: A Proof-of-Concept. Detecting fatigue during training sessions would help riders and trainers to optimize their training. It has been shown that fatigue could affect movement patterns. Inertial measurement units (IMUs) are wearable sensors that measure linear accelerations and angular velocities, and can also provide orientation estimates. These sensors offer the possibility of a non-invasive and continuous monitoring of locomotion during training sessions. However, the indicators extracted from IMUs and their ability to show these locomotion changes are not known. The present study aims at defining which kinemat...
Is each horse unique and unrepeatable? An explanation through morphometric and statistical analysis of the limb bones. Horses went through functional differentiation during their evolutionary and reproductive development, however, some body parts continued to improve their specificity for speed. Regarding this, we evaluated by morphometric analysis the relationship between limb section (LS) differences in the appendicular structures of horses. Two hundred and seven (n = 207) adult horses of different breeds and sex were selected. The limb section was measured by identification of topographic palpable skeleton landmarks with a measurement tape (centimetres). Quantitative variables (limb section) were analysed...
Modulation of Osteogenic Differentiation of Adipose-Derived Stromal Cells by Co-Treatment with 3, 4′-Dihydroxyflavone, U0126, and N-Acetyl Cysteine. Flavonoids form the largest group of plant phenols and have various biological and pharmacological activities. In this study, we investigated the effect of a flavonoid, 3, 4'-dihydroxyflavone (3, 4'-DHF) on osteogenic differentiation of equine adipose-derived stromal cells (eADSCs). Unassigned: Treatment of 3, 4'-DHF led to increased osteogenic differentiation of eADSCs by increasing phosphorylation of ERK and modulating Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) generation. Although PD98059, an ERK inhibitor, suppressed osteogenic differentiation, another ERK inhibitor, U0126, apparently increased osteoge...
Biomechanical and Microstructural Properties of Subchondral Bone From Three Metacarpophalangeal Joint Sites in Thoroughbred Racehorses. Fatigue-induced subchondral bone (SCB) injury is common in racehorses. Understanding how subchondral microstructure and microdamage influence mechanical properties is important for developing injury prevention strategies. Mechanical properties of the disto-palmar third metacarpal condyle (MCIII) correlate poorly with microstructure, and it is unknown whether the properties of other sites within the metacarpophalangeal (fetlock) joint are similarly complex. We aimed to investigate the mechanical and structural properties of equine SCB from specimens with minimal evidence of macroscopic disease....
Seminal Plasma Antioxidants Are Related to Sperm Cryotolerance in the Horse. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship of enzymatic (superoxide dismutase, SOD; glutathione peroxidase, GPX; catalase, CAT; and paraoxonase type 1, PON1) and non-enzymatic antioxidants (measured in terms of: Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, TEAC; cupric-reducing antioxidant capacity, CUPRAC; and ferric-reducing ability of plasma, FRAP), as well as the oxidative stress index (OSI) in seminal plasma (SP) with the resilience of horse sperm to freeze-thawing. Twenty-one ejaculates (one per individual) were collected and split into two aliquots: the first was used to h...
Contrasting Volatilomes of Livestock Dung Drive Preference of the Dung Beetle Bubas bison (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Volatile cues can play a significant role in the location and discrimination of food resources by insects. Dung beetles have been reported to discriminate among dung types produced by different species, thereby exhibiting behavioral preferences. However, the role of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in dung localization and preference remains largely unexplored in dung beetles. Here we performed several studies: firstly, cage olfactometer bioassays were performed to evaluate the behavioral responses of (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) to VOCs emanating from fresh horse, sheep, and cattle dung; seco...
The impulsive horse: Comparing genetic, physiological and behavioral indicators to those of human addiction. Stress and genotype elicit changes in impulse control in a range of species that are attributable to adaptations in both the central and peripheral nervous system. We examined aspects of this mechanism in the horse by assessing the effect of a dopamine receptor genotype (DRD4) and central dopaminergic tone (measured via spontaneous blink rate [SBR] and behavioral initiation rate [BIR]), on measures of impulsivity, compulsivity (3-choice serial reaction time task) and sympathetic/ parasympathetic system balance (heart rate variability [HRV]). Genotype did not have a significant effect on any of...
Follicular-fluid proteomics during equine follicle development. The complex composition of the follicular fluid (FF), the intimate proximity to the oocyte, and the continual changes in their composition have a major effect on folliculogenesis and oogenesis. To date, the profiling of FF proteomes during follicle selection, development, and ovulation has not been comprehensively investigated. Therefore, a shotgun proteomics approach and bioinformatics analyses were used to profile the proteomes of equine FF harvested in vivo from follicles at the following development stages: predeviation (18-20 mm), deviation (22-25 mm), postdeviation (26-29 mm), preo...
Influence of Chronic Lameness on Thoracolumbar Musculus Multifidus Structure in the Horse. The clinical relationship between equine limb lameness and secondary back dysfunction is largely unknown. Proper function of the spine is critical to maintain the integrity of the kinetic chain and attenuate forces from the appendicular skeleton. The musculus multifidus (m. multifidus) is the primary muscle providing spinal intersegmental stabilization and a functional relationship between m. multifidus hypertrophy and equine postural stability has been established. The relationship between equine thoracolumbar m. multifidus cross-sectional area (CSA) and limb lameness is unknown. The objectiv...
Lacrimal Secretion Variation and Menace Response Appearance in Healthy Standardbred Foals From Birth to Four Weeks of Age. This study assesses lacrimal secretion in healthy foals within 48 hours after birth and evaluates their variations in lacrimal secretion and menace response appearance during the first month of life. A total of 31 Standardbred foals were evaluated. Foals were housed with their dams in 4 × 4 m boxes throughout the study. A complete ophthalmic examination was performed for each animal enrolled in the study, including the foals' dams which were used as a control group to compare the lacrimal secretion of foals at birth with that of adult horses. In foals, the Schirmer Tear Test I (STT I) and m...
Fecal microbiome of horses transitioning between warm-season and cool-season grass pasture within integrated rotational grazing systems. Diet is a key driver of equine hindgut microbial community structure and composition. The aim of this study was to characterize shifts in the fecal microbiota of grazing horses during transitions between forage types within integrated warm- (WSG) and cool-season grass (CSG) rotational grazing systems (IRS). Eight mares were randomly assigned to two IRS containing mixed cool-season grass and one of two warm-season grasses: bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.] or crabgrass [Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.]. Fecal samples were collected during transitions from CSG to WSG pasture sections (...
Cultured dissociated primary dorsal root ganglion neurons from adult horses enable study of axonal transport. Neurological disorders are prevalent in horses, but their study is challenging due to anatomic constraints and the large body size; very few host-specific in vitro models have been established to study these types of diseases, particularly from adult donor tissue. Here we report the generation of primary neuronal dorsal root ganglia (DRG) cultures from adult horses: the mixed, dissociated cultures, containing neurons and glial cells, remained viable for at least 90 days. Similar to DRG neurons in vivo, cultured neurons varied in size, and they developed long neurites. The mitochondrial movem...
Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles From the Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid of Healthy and Asthmatic Horses. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound particles that engage in inflammatory reactions by mediating cell-cell interactions. Previously, EVs have been isolated from the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of humans and rodents. The aim of this study was to investigate the number and size distribution of EVs in the BALF of asthmatic horses (EA, = 35) and healthy horses ( = 19). Saline was injected during bronchoscopy to the right lung followed by manual aspiration. The retrieved BALF was centrifuged twice to remove cells and biological debris. The supernatant was concentrated and EVs w...
Mechanisms of bicarbonate secretion in the equine colon ex vivo. To examine bicarbonate (HCO3-) secretion ex vivo in the equine large colon to determine any differences between the right dorsal colon (RDC) and right ventral colon (RVC). The effect of phenylbutazone (PBZ) on HCO3- secretion was examined in the RDC. Methods: 14 healthy horses. Methods: In anesthetized horses (n = 10), segments of mucosa from RDC and RVC were harvested to measure HCO3- secretion ex vivo with the pH Stat method. The effect of PBZ on HCO3- secretion in the RDC was studied in 4 additional horses. Results: Three distinct mechanisms of HCO3- secretion previously described in a muri...
An in vitro model for discovery of osteoclast specific biomarkers towards identification of racehorses at risk for catastrophic fractures. Focal bone microcracks with osteoclast recruitment and bone lysis, may reduce fracture resistance in racehorses. As current imaging does not detect all horses at risk for fracture, the discovery of novel serum biomarkers of bone resorption or osteoclast activity could potentially address this unmet clinical need. The biology of equine osteoclasts on their natural substrate, equine bone, has never been studied in vitro and may permit identification of specific biomarkers of their activity. Objective: (1) Establish osteoclast cultures on equine bone, (2) Measure biomarkers (tartrate resistant ac...
Withaferin A Inhibits Neutrophil Adhesion, Migration, and Respiratory Burst and Promotes Timely Neutrophil Apoptosis. Neutrophils play a major role in many equine conditions, including equine asthma, laminitis, and intestinal ischemia and reperfusion injury, and therefore represent an attractive target for innovative therapeutic approaches. Novel strategies for reducing neutrophilic inflammation include modulation of neutrophil functions and lifespan. Withaferin A (WFA) is a phytochemical with well-established and anti-inflammatory properties, but its direct effects on neutrophils are largely unknown. We hypothesized that WFA would inhibit adhesion, migration, and respiratory burst by equine neutrophils and...
Equine Oviductal Organoid Generation and Cryopreservation. Organoids are a type of three-dimensional (3D) cell culture that more closely mimic the in vivo environment and can be maintained in the long term. To date, oviductal organoids have only been reported in laboratory mice, women, and cattle. Equine oviductal organoids were generated and cultured for 42 days (including 3 passages and freeze-thawing at passage 1). Consistent with the reports in mouse and human oviductal organoids, the equine oviductal organoids revealed round cell clusters with a central lumen. Developing a 3D model of the mare oviduct may allow for an increased understanding of t...
Ultrasound biomicroscopy of the equine iridocorneal angle. The iridocorneal angle (ICA) is the major pathway of aqueous humour outflow from the anterior chamber of the eye. Ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) has been utilised to characterise the morphology of this drainage pathway in numerous species. UBM may allow for early recognition of aqueous humour outflow obstructions in horses, allowing for earlier recognition of risk for glaucoma, a vision-threatening and painful disease. UBM morphology of the normal equine ICA has yet to be described. Objective: To determine the ultrasonographic morphology of the equine ICA by UBM in standing sedated horses. Met...
Getting rid of blinkers: the case of mirror self-recognition in horses (Equus caballus). The commentary by Gallup and Anderson (Anim Cogn https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-021-01538-9 , 2021) on the original article by Baragli, Scopa, Maglieri, and Palagi (Anim Cogn https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-021-01502-7 , 2021) raised some concerns about the methodological approach used by the authors to demonstrate Mirror Self-Recognition (MSR) in horses. The commentary does not take into account horse physiology and psychology, leading Gallup and Anderson to inappropriately discredit the findings obtained by Baragli et al. Anim Cogn 2021. In this reply, we underlined the importance of a blinke...
An exercise-inducible metabolite that suppresses feeding and obesity. Exercise confers protection against obesity, type 2 diabetes and other cardiometabolic diseases1-5. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms that mediate the metabolic benefits of physical activity remain unclear6. Here we show that exercise stimulates the production of N-lactoyl-phenylalanine (Lac-Phe), a blood-borne signalling metabolite that suppresses feeding and obesity. The biosynthesis of Lac-Phe from lactate and phenylalanine occurs in CNDP2+ cells, including macrophages, monocytes and other immune and epithelial cells localized to diverse organs. In diet-induced obese mice,...
Characterization of Equine Chronic Tendon Lesions in Low- and High-Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging. In equine medicine, experience regarding MRI of chronic tendon lesions is limited, and evidence on the suitability of different sequences in 3 T high-field MRI is scarce. Therefore, macroscopically healthy and altered tendons were examined by histology and in 0.27 T low- and 3 T high-field MRI, focusing on T1-weighted (T1w) sequences to visualize chronic lesions. In high-field MRI, tendons were positioned parallel (horizontal) and perpendicular (vertical) to the magnetic field, acknowledging the possible impact of the magic angle effect. The images were evaluated qualitatively and signal inten...
Oxidant and Antioxidant Parameters’ Assessment Together with Homocysteine and Muscle Enzymes in Racehorses: Evaluation of Positive Effects of Exercise. This study aimed to evaluate the changes in serum oxidant and antioxidant parameters together with the serum values of homocysteine (Hcy) and muscle enzymes including creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in regularly trained athletic horses during official races of 1200, 1600 and 2000 m. Thirty Thoroughbred horses were divided into three groups of 10 subjects each according to the race distance: Group 1, 1200 m race; Group 2, 1600 m race; Group 3, 2000 m race. Blood samples were collected from horses 1 week prior to the race (1WB), on the day o...
