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Topic:Musculoskeletal System
The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Allogeneic Platelet-Rich Gel Supernatant Reprograms the Cytokine and Growth Factor Microenvironment in an Equine In Vitro Inflammatory Tendon System. Tendinopathy involves a dysregulated inflammatory microenvironment in which cytokines, growth factors (GF) and extracellular matrix components interact dynamically. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is widely used as a regenerative therapy, but its mechanisms of action in inflamed tendon remain unclear. This study evaluated whether platelet-rich gel supernatant (PRGS) reprograms the inflammatory-anabolic mediator network in an equine in vitro tendon explant system stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Tendon explants were cultured under six experimental conditions, including non-stimulated contro...
Measuring Chuckwagon Racehorse Movement Asymmetry Before and After Racing Using Wearable GNSS-IMUs: A Preliminary Study. In Chuckwagon racing, teams of four Thoroughbred horses pull wagons at high speeds. Movement symmetry is a key locomotion metric linked to force production, racing direction, and lameness. Racehorse symmetry in trot during on-track warmups and cooldowns was assessed. Over 10 days, 60 horses (average 8 per day) were fitted with Global Navigation Satellite Systems combined with Inertial Measurement Unit (GNSS-IMU) sensors. Weight-bearing asymmetry was quantified using the minimum difference (MnD) in vertical trunk displacement between diagonal limb pairs, and push-off asymmetry was quantified us...
Effects of shoeing on forelimb biomechanics in walking horses. Hoof trimming and shoeing techniques are used to manage and prevent equine limb injuries. However, quantitative studies comparing the effects of different shoeing techniques on equine joint biomechanics over the full gait cycle are lacking. Objective: To measure and compare joint motion and net torques at the distal forelimb joints when horses walk overground unshod, with a standard flat shoe, and with a rocker shoe. Methods: In vivo study. Methods: Gait data were recorded from 12 sound horses during walking. Three shoeing conditions were tested: unshod, flat shoe, and rocker shoe. Data were r...
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in a Roman-period horse from Gerulata (Bratislava-Rusovce, Slovakia): Diagnostic Considerations. To evaluate pathological changes identified in a skeleton of a horse from Roman-period Gerulata, Slovakia. Methods: The remains consist of a partially preserved, articulated skeleton of an adult horse from today's southern urban district of Bratislava-Rusovce in southwestern Slovakia. Methods: The specimen underwent macroscopic analysis to assess taxonomic identification, biological profile, and pathological changes. Thoracolumbar lesions were further evaluated using computed tomography (CT). Radiocarbon dating determined the absolute age of the remains. Results: Species determination indicate...
Standing computed tomographic tenography is reliable in identifying soft tissue lesions within the digital flexor tendon sheath in horses. To determine the diagnostic performance of standing computed tomographic tenography (CTT) in detecting naturally occurring intrathecal lesions of the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), manica flexoria (MF), and in identifying palmar/plantar annular ligament (PAL) desmitis and constriction in horses undergoing tenoscopy. Methods: Retrospective observational study. Methods: Client-owned horses of various breeds and use, median age of 12.5 years (range: 6-20 years). Methods: A total of 24 horses with inconclusive ultrasonographic and contrast tenograp...
Influence of riders’ physical activity on improving seat balance in the context of horse welfare – A pilot study. This study aimed to investigate the impact of gym exercises for riders on their posture and the subsequent effect on reducing discomfort for their horses during training, using electronic pressure sensors. The study involved 20 warmblood horses aged 5-10 years, regularly ridden under saddle, and four riders of similar height and body weight. The study group was divided into a control group (10 horses) and an experimental group (10 horses). The horses were trained 5 days a week for 60 days in total. Riders trained three times a week for approximately 60 minutes. The exercises were designed to i...
Overview of the Current Osteoarthritis Treatment in Veterinary Medicine and Future Directions. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic and progressive joint disease that can cause permanent loss of joint function. OA is highly prevalent in horses, dogs, and cats, affecting different joints and leading to reduced mobility and chronic pain. Different risk factors for animal OA have been identified, including trauma and breed. Inflammation is a hallmark of the disease, with various underlying mechanisms such as cyclooxygenase and metalloproteinase activation, nerve growth factor, cytokine, and prostaglandin upregulation, among others. Although disease complexity makes OA difficult to treat, eno...
Haplotype GWAS in swedish warmblood horses for conformation and jumping traits. The aim of this study was to better understand the genomic architecture behind performance-related traits in sport horses. In this study, we conducted a haplotype-based genome-wide association study (GWAS) for 36 conformation and free jumping phenotypes recorded during routinely conducted young horse evaluation tests involving 380 Swedish Warmblood (SWB) horses. The horses were evaluated by expert judges using both traditional and linear evaluation systems. All samples were genotyped using the 670K Affymetrix® Axiom® Equine Genotyping Array, haplotypes were first phased, and haplotype blocks...
Standing NanoNeedle Arthroscopy of the Distal Interphalangeal Joint for Removal of Osteochondral Fragments of Distal P2 and the Extensor Process in a Horse. In horses, standing arthroscopy offers a valuable alternative to general anesthesia for the reduction of anesthetic-associated risks, and provides improved visualization in joints where access is facilitated by weightbearing. These techniques are particularly advantageous for patients with increased anesthetic risk or financial limitations. To the authors' knowledge, the removal of osteochondral fragments from the distal interphalangeal joint in a standing, sedated horse using small-diameter arthroscopic equipment has not been previously reported. Methods: A 7-year-old American Quarter Horse-T...
Objective gait analysis methods for assessing movement asymmetry in the equine patient. To demonstrate the uses, data interpretation, and limitations of objective gait analysis methods in equine practice. Unassigned: Teaching and client-owned horses. Unassigned: Informed owner consent was obtained for all animals used in the making of this technical tutorial video. Primary literature relevant to this video was reviewed from January 2016 to January 2026. Images and data were collected from teaching horses and client-owned horses. Unassigned: Objective gait analysis provides accurate and repeatable data on the locomotion of a horse; however, inaccuracies may occur, especially in ca...
Longitudinal associations between dorsal carpal and third metacarpal bone morphology in Thoroughbred foals during growth. The carpal and third metacarpal (MC3) bones of the equine forelimb undergo morphological adaptation during early growth, influenced by developmental and mechanical factors. However, the longitudinal interactions between dorsal carpal morphology and MC3 structural characteristics have not been fully characterized. Improved understanding of these relationships may help identify morphological indicators associated with bone injury risk before training. Objective: To examine the longitudinal associations between dorsal carpal angular morphology and MC3 diaphyseal parameters in growing Thoroughbred...
Macroscopic comparison of open Metzenbaum and ultrasound-guided fasciotomy techniques for surgical treatment of the hindlimb proximal suspensory ligament desmopathy in horses: A cadaveric anatomical study. To macroscopically characterize and compare the open Metzenbaum (FOM) and ultrasound-guided (FUG) plantar fasciotomy techniques for decompression of the hindlimb proximal suspensory ligament (PSL), and to determine whether either approach induces intraligamentous splitting (ILS). Methods: Cadaveric experimental study. Methods: Paired hindlimbs from 10 adult horses with no history of hindlimb lameness. Methods: Each horse contributed one limb to FOM and the contralateral to FUG. All procedures were performed by a single surgeon, and incision measurements were obtained by a blinded examiner. Ski...
Assessing quality and passive range of motion in equine distal limb joints. To describe and demonstrate subjective and objective techniques for assessing the quality and passive range of motion (ROM) of the distal forelimb and hind limb joints of the horse. Special attention will be given to the tarsus, carpus, and fetlock joints, as these sites are most prone to injury and/or pathology and thus most clinically relevant. Unassigned: Adult horses undergoing distal limb joint ROM assessment for clinical diagnostic or treatment monitoring purposes. Unassigned: First, subjective techniques for assessing distal limb joint motion and end-feel as well as general guidelines f...
[Cone beam computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy of the carpal region in the horse]. Subject matter and objectiveThe aim of this study was to display clinically relevant anatomical structures of the carpal region in healthy horses with the help of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT).Materials and methods: Twenty-eight forelimbs from 15 adult horses without orthopedic diseases were examined. Following native CBCT examination a mixture of hyperattenuating contrast medium with blue epoxy resin dye was injected in the antebrachiocarpal joint and middle carpal joint and contrast-enhanced CBCT scans were also acquired. Subsequently, the limbs were frozen and sawed in different plan...
Effects of various perineural analgesia techniques on decreasing experimentally-induced lameness of the equine metacarpophalangeal joint. Recent evidence has shown that perineural analgesia may be less specific than previously thought. Objective: To compare the effects of four distal limb perineural analgesia techniques on resolving synovitis-induced lameness of the equine metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ). Methods: Nine horses had one MCPJ injected with 75ng of recombinant equine interleukin-1β (reIL-1β). Ten hours later, horses underwent one of two blocking patterns: (1) a palmar digital (PDNB) followed by an abaxial sesamoidean (ASNB) nerve block or (2) a palmar metacarpal (PMNB) followed by a palmar (PaNB) nerve block. Skin...
Comparative hematological and physiological responses to ground and pool training in Colombian Paso Horses. Exercise training causes physiological and hematological changes that are crucial for enhancing athletic performance in horses. While these responses have been extensively studied in various equine breeds, there is limited information regarding Colombian Paso Horses (CPH), especially concerning the comparative effects of different training methods. Ground-based training is frequently used to improve gait and speed, whereas aquatic exercise has become an alternative conditioning approach that lessens musculoskeletal stress. However, the physiological responses related to these training modaliti...
Client-specific outcome measure for chronic osteoarthritis pain assessment in horses. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent cause of chronic pain and lameness in horses. Whereas lameness can be quantified using objective measures, the assessment of OA-associated pain remains challenging. This study aimed to evaluate the applicability of the Client-Specific Outcome Measure (CSOM), a tool widely used in small animals, for the assessment of chronic OA pain in horses through caretaker evaluation. Unassigned: Seventeen privately owned horses with confirmed OA were enrolled in a 20-week randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. For each horse, three individual pain-related ind...
Effect of a single session of Equine Assisted Physical Therapy on postural stability in children with Down syndrome. Equine Assisted Physiotherapy (EAPT; formerly known as hippotherapy) is known to improve functional mobility, gross motor skills, and postural stability in individuals with Down syndrome (DS). However, it may be challenging to implement as a long-term intervention. The aim of the current study was to assess whether even a single session of EAPT can have effect on postural stability in children with DS. Methods: Nine children with DS underwent a single session of EAPT. Postural stability before and immediately after the EAPT session was assessed with the bipedal stance (variability of lower tru...
Objective, Longitudinal Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Metacarpal Condyles in Non-Lame Thoroughbred Racehorses. There are limited data on sequential computed tomographic (CT) evaluation and objective CT assessment of the metacarpal condyles in Thoroughbred racehorses. This longitudinal study aimed to document changes in attenuation of the metacarpal condyles during the first two years of training and racing. Fan-beam CT examination of the metacarpophalangeal regions was performed on 40 non-lame Thoroughbred yearlings, and repeated four more times, approximately six months apart. Mean Hounsfield Unit (HU) measurements were obtained on sagittal reconstructions of the dorsal and palmar halves of the medial...
The influence of dirt track hardness on equine limb acceleration and impact attenuation. BACKGROUND: Track hardness is a modifiable factor that may influence musculoskeletal loading and injury risk in equine athletes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of track hardness on segmental accelerations and impact attenuation in the equine forelimb at racing speeds. We hypothesized that harder surfaces would result in greater peak segmental accelerations and reduced attenuation. METHODS: Twelve Thoroughbred chuckwagon outriding horses, instrumented with tri-axial accelerometers and a global positioning system (GPS) unit, galloped on the Calgary Stampede dirt racetrack ...
Main causes of death in aged horses in a retirement facility in California can be attributed to the digestive and musculoskeletal systems. To determine the main causes of death in aged horses residing at a retirement facility in California. Unassigned: A retrospective cross-sectional study design was utilized to evaluate signalment, medical history, and necropsy reports of horses aged 20 years or older at death and housed at a single retirement facility. All cases underwent a standard post mortem evaluation from 2010 through 2020 by the University of California-Davis William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital. Euthanasia decisions were made by the retirement facility staff in consultation with a veterinarian. The m...
Sequential Application of Autologous Platelet Rich Plasma and Muscle-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Acute Tendon Injuries in Horses: Early Clinical and Ultrasonographic Outcomes in a Randomized, Double-Blind Controlled Study. Tendon and ligament injuries are frequent in sport horses and are prone to recurrence due to incomplete healing. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are increasingly used, but data controlled on the early effects of autologous MSCs remain limited. A prospective randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted in horses with naturally occurring tendinopathies. After standardized PRP pretreatment, non-responders were randomized to receive intralesional autologous muscle-derived MSCs (mdMSCs, = 17) or placebo ( = 6). Clinical and ultrasonographic paramete...
Postmortem characterization of cranial nuchal bursa and ligament in healthy horses reveals subclinical gross and histopathologic abnormalities. To investigate the presence of subclinical cranial nuchal bursitis and characterize its histopathologic features and association with Borrelia burgdorferi. Unassigned: This was a prospective descriptive cadaver study on a convenience population of horses in a B burgdorferi-endemic region (15 horses: 5 geldings and 10 mares of various breeds; 4 to 29 years old). Horses without history or clinical signs of cranial nuchal bursitis underwent euthanasia and tissue donation. Cranial nuchal bursa, synovial fluid, and nuchal ligament were collected postmortem. The bursa and ligament were evaluated via...
Equine models in translational medicine: A comparative approach to human health. The horse is a distinctive translational model for bridging mechanistic discovery and clinically relevant investigation because of its physiological complexity, long lifespan, athletic phenotype, and broad spectrum of naturally occurring conditions that parallel aspects of human health and disease. Its utility extends from musculoskeletal and joint research to immunology, metabolic disorders, and exercise physiology, particularly where naturally developed disease, clinically applicable imaging, and longitudinal sampling are required. Additionally, it offers opportunities to examine both chroni...
Is there a difference in pressures and forces under the roller with different pads when lunging horses with the Pessoa training aid? Elevated pressures beneath training rollers during the Pessoa training aid (PTA) use have been reported, particularly over the thoracic region, which may contribute to back discomfort. Objective: To investigate the effect of different pads on pressures and forces beneath a training roller during lunging with a PTA. Methods: Six clinically sound horses (13.8 ± 5.2 years) were lunged on a 16-m circle in trot and canter using a randomised crossover design under three conditions: no padding (Pad 1), a folded cotton saddle cloth (Pad 2), and a purpose-made roller foam pad (Pad 3). Kinetic data wer...
Comparison of Ultrasonography, Contrast Radiographic Tenography, Cone-Beam Computed Tomographic Tenography, and Tenoscopy for Lesion Detection Within the Digital Flexor Tendon Sheath of Horses-A Prospective Clinical Trial. Lesions of the tendons and manica flexoria (MF) within the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) are a common cause for lameness in horses. This prospective study compared and quantified the agreement and disagreement of positive contrast computed tomographic tenography (CTT), positive contrast radiographic tenography (RXT), ultrasonography (US) and tenoscopy for diagnosing naturally occurring lesions within the DFTS, without application of a gold standard. Lesions affecting the deep (DDFT) and/or superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), and/or the MF and/or constriction of the palmar/plantar a...
The dynamic 3D horse: analyzing the relationship between whole body pathomechanics and joint degeneration in the fetlocks. Lameness is often associated with degenerative joint disease (DJD). Current therapies focus on minimizing pain or treating specific lesions but generally do not address the pathomechanical forces that are the root cause of degeneration. Treatments based on specific, whole-body therapies are becoming common in humans with DJD, but are still not routinely applied in equine cases. Designing targeted therapies for horses requires recognizing habitual postures and movements that are pathological. An important but often missing component for understanding movement postures is accurate and manipulata...
Systematic review and meta-analysis of adult multipotent stromal/stem cell treatment for equine tendinopathy and desmopathy. Over the last few decades, cell and cell-based therapies emerged as treatment options for equine tendinopathy and desmopathy. The objective of this study was to critically evaluate outcomes following treatment of equine tendinopathy or desmopathy with adult multipotent stromal/stem cells (MSCs). Unassigned: The PubMed and Web of Science databases were searched for "equine/horse," "tendon/tendinopathy/tendonitis/ligament/ligamentopathy/desmopathy/desmitis," "stem/stromal/mesenchymal/multipotent," and "cell" from January 2001 to June 2025. Studies were identified according to PRISMA guidelines, ...
The effect of botulinum toxin injection into the deep digital flexor muscle on foot biomechanics in healthy horses. To examine the effects of botulinum toxin inoculation into the deep digital flexor (DDF) muscle on foot biomechanics. Unassigned: 6 healthy horses were injected with botulinum toxin in the DDF of 1 forelimb. The opposite forelimb was untreated. Ground reaction forces (GRF) were measured using a pressure sensor in regions of interest, including the dorsal hoof wall (toe). The location of the center of pressure (COP) was measured relative to the dorsal hoof wall during static standing and at peak stance during walking. Repeat measurements 3, 7, 14, 28, and 42 days after injection were compared t...
Clinical Manifestations and Behaviors Associated with Equine Head and Neck Disorders. Equine head and neck disorders can present with a wide range of clinical manifestations, depending on the structures involved and disease process. Important components of the gastrointestinal, respiratory, ophthalmological, neurological, and musculoskeletal systems are contained within the head and neck, and clinical signs of disorders will result in expected clinical signs. However, clinical manifestations of disease are sometimes subtle, and when not recognized can lead to behavioral changes including undesired behaviors and poor sleep. Recognizing behavioral phenotypes of horses with proble...
