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Topic:Ponies
Ponies are members of the Equus genus, distinguished primarily by differences in size, build, and certain physiological traits. Horses are typically larger, with a height at the withers exceeding 14.2 hands (58 inches), while ponies measure 14.2 hands or shorter. These distinctions are not solely based on size; ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall sturdier builds. Despite these differences, both ponies and horses share similar dietary needs, social behaviors, and reproductive processes. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomical, genetic, and behavioral aspects of ponies and horses, as well as their roles in various human activities and environments.
Small Colon Faecalith with Large Colon Displacement in Ten Cases (2015-2023): A Detailed Case Description and Literature Review. Small colon impaction can result in accumulation of ingesta, gas, and fluid orally to the impaction site in horses. Large colon tympany, which is caused by ingesta fermentation, can be a predisposing factor for intestinal displacement. The aim of this study is to report the history, clinical, and surgical findings of horses and ponies referred for abdominal pain not responsive to drugs where a right dorsal displacement (RDD) or large colon volvulus (LCV), together with a small colon faecalith (SCF), were diagnosed during surgery. This study included a total of five horses and five ponies. Base...
Validation of a novel clinical tool for monitoring distal limb stiffness. To validate a novel technique to measure limb stiffness in a clinical setting. Unassigned: Three horses and three ponies owned by the Royal Veterinary College. Unassigned: Limb stiffness indices for both forelimbs were first derived using the gold standard of kinematic analysis. Using the same animals, limb stiffness indices were then calculated using portable floor scales to record weight and an electrogoniometer to record changes in metacarpophalangeal joint angle. The two techniques were then assessed for correlation and repeatability. Unassigned: The repeatability of limb stiffness measure...
Epidemiological investigation of insulin dysregulation in Shetland and Welsh ponies in Australia. Insulin dysregulation (ID) is central to equine metabolic syndrome. There are limited epidemiological studies investigating dynamic testing of ID in ponies. Objective: To evaluate prevalence and risk factors for ID through dynamic testing of hyperinsulinaemia (DHI) and insulin resistance (IR). Methods: Cross-sectional. Methods: Sex, age, breed, height, cresty neck score (CNS), body condition score (BCS), laminitis, HMGA2:c.83G>A genotype and pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID) status were documented. Dynamic hyperinsulinaemia was diagnosed with an oral sugar test (OST) and IR with ...
Osseous pathologic changes in the lumbar region of the equine vertebral column: A descriptive post-mortem study in three breeds. Data on equine lumbar pathology hardly exist in breeds other than Thoroughbreds. Objective: To describe pathological changes of the osseous lumbar vertebral column in Warmblood horses, Shetland ponies and Konik horses. Methods: Descriptive post-mortem study. Methods: The lumbar vertebral columns of 34 Warmblood horses, 28 Shetland ponies, and 18 Konik horses were examined by computed tomography (CT). Osteoarthritis (OA) of articular processes (APJs), OA of intertransverse joints (ITJs), intervertebral disc (IVD) mineralisation, impingement of spinous (SPs) and transverse (TPs) processes and sp...
How Useful Are Existing Protocols in the Quick Assessment of the Welfare of Semi-Feral Horses? Pilot Study on Konik Polski Horses Living in the Forest Sanctuary. Scientifically validated and standardised methods for the evaluation of the welfare of free-living horses are urgently needed by both the owners and managers of these populations and those responsible for implementing national welfare legislation. The aim of the study was to test the feasibility and usefulness of two welfare protocols that could be applied to semi-feral populations: a prototype of welfare assessment template (WAT) for Carneddau semi-feral ponies and the IFCE/INRAE Horse Welfare Protocol. Additionally, the body condition scale designed by Henneke (BCS-H) was employed. The study...
A glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor antagonist reduces the insulin response to a glycemic meal in ponies. High plasma concentrations of insulin can cause acute laminitis. Ponies and horses with insulin dysregulation (ID) exhibit marked hyperinsulinemia in response to dietary hydrolyzable carbohydrates. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), an incretin hormone released from the gastrointestinal tract, enhances insulin release, and is increased postprandially in ponies with ID. The aim of this study was to determine whether blocking the GLP-1 receptor reduces the insulin response to a high glycemic meal. Five adult ponies were adapted to a cereal meal and then given two feed challenges 24 h apart of a me...
Influence of feeding and other factors on adrenocorticotropin concentration and thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test in horses and ponies. The basal (bACTH) and post-thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation concentration of adrenocorticotropin (pACTH) are recommended for diagnosis of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID). Many factors influence bACTH (e.g., disease, age, month) and some affect the results only in autumn (e.g., breed, colour, sex). There are discrepancies about the impact of feeding on b/pACTH. Objective: To determine whether feeding, month, age, breed, colour, sex and body condition score affect b/pACTH. Methods: Prospective crossover. Methods: Sixty-one animals were divided into groups: healthy, PPID, tr...
Obesity and obesity-associated metabolic disease conditions in Connemara ponies in Ireland. Equine obesity combined with insulin dysregulation (ID) is a major risk factor associated with laminitis. Some pony breeds appear to be at increased risk. However, little is known regarding the prevalence of obesity or hyperinsulinaemia as evidence of ID in Irish ponies. Objective: To investigate the prevalence of obesity and associated endocrine/metabolic disease conditions in Connemara ponies and to determine if hyperinsulinaemia in these ponies could be predicted by morphometric or metabolic markers. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: The study population included registered Connemara...
Development of a three-dimensional computer model of the equine heart using a polyurethane casting technique and in vivo contrast-enhanced computed tomography. Insight into the three-dimensional (3D) anatomy of the equine heart is essential in veterinary education and to develop minimally invasive intracardiac procedures. The aim was to create a 3D computer model simulating the in vivo anatomy of the adult equine heart. Methods: Ten horses and five ponies. Methods: Ten horses, euthanized for non-cardiovascular reasons, were used for in situ cardiac casting with polyurethane foam and subsequent computed tomography (CT) of the excised heart. In five anaesthetized ponies, a contrast-enhanced electrocardiogram-gated CT protocol was optimized to image th...
Strip grazing: Changes in biomass, nutrient content and digestibility of temperate, midsummer pasture by strip-grazed or ‘free’-grazing ponies, over 4 weeks. The digestibility and nutritive values of pastures that were either freely or strip-grazed for 28 days were compared. Twelve ponies were individually grazed in adjacent, 10 m wide, rectangular paddocks. On day -1, each paddock length was adjusted to contain a 28-day supply of herbage DM at 1.5 % of pony BW/d. Ponies, (4/treatment) either accessed the entire 28-day supply from day 1 (TA), or gradually via strip-grazing treatments, SG1 and SG2. SG1 had a 'lead' fence spanning the paddock width that from day 3 was moved forward 1/26th of the paddock length daily, whereas SG2 had an additional 'b...
Insulin, but not adiponectin, is detectable in equine saliva using an automated, commercial assay. The hormones insulin and adiponectin are commonly measured in equids because of their involvement in endocrinopathic laminitis. These are currently measured in serum/plasma, although jugular venipuncture can cause stress in some animals and may be impossible in needle-shy individuals. However, both hormones can be measured in saliva in other species. Objective: To determine whether [insulin] and [total adiponectin] are detectable in equine saliva using automated assays and whether saliva collection is associated with changes in stress indicators. Additionally, the correlation between serum and...
Potential risk factors for fetal loss due to umbilical cord torsion in the mare. Equine pregnancy failure can occur throughout gestation with etiologies varying by region. In Europe, umbilical cord torsion (UCT) has been reported to account for up to 52% of abortions and stillbirths. Little is known about what causes excessive twisting of the umbilical cord (UC), and up till now, only the length of the UC has been identified as a risk factor for UCT. The aim of the present study was to determine the association of potential maternal and fetal risk factors with UCT and umbilical cord length (UCL). A retrospective cohort study was performed on aborted or prematurely delivere...
The influence of hypoxaemia, hypotension and hypercapnia (among other factors) on quality of recovery from general anaesthesia in horses. To investigate the effect of hypoxaemia, hypotension and hypercapnia, among others, on quality of recovery from general anaesthesia in horses. Methods: Retrospective, single-centre study. Methods: A sample of 1226 horses that underwent general anaesthesia between June 2017 and June 2021. Methods: Horses and ponies weighing > 200 kg, aged > 6 months, anaesthetized using a xylazine- or medetomidine-isoflurane balanced anaesthesia protocol and presenting a complete anaesthetic record were included. Data were extracted from the clinic record system and from the original anaesthesia records. ...
Confidence does not mediate a relationship between owner experience and likelihood of using weight management approaches for native ponies. Native ponies are at increased risk of obesity and metabolic perturbations, such as insulin dysregulation (ID), a key risk factor for endocrinopathic laminitis. Management and feeding practices can be adapted to maintain healthy body condition and support metabolic health, but owners may inadvertently provide their ponies with inappropriate management leading to obesity and exacerbating risk of metabolic disease. Adoption of preventative weight management approaches (WMAs), including regular monitoring of body condition, providing appropriate preserved forage, promoting seasonal weight loss, a...
Investigation of Serum Markers of Hepatic Fibrosis in Equids. Liver disease is common in equine practice, and treatment and prognosis are dependent on histopathologic examination of biopsies. Liver biopsy is invasive and expensive which restricts its use. Serum markers are used to predict hepatic fibrosis in humans. This study aimed to investigate the enhanced liver fibrosis (ELF) test, based on serum Hyaluronic Acid (HA), procollagen III N-terminal peptide (PIIINP), and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP-1) to detect hepatic fibrosis in equids. Four groups were included; two with increased serum concentrations of liver-derived enzymes and a l...
Short-term induced hyperinsulinaemia and dexamethasone challenge do not affect circulating total adiponectin concentrations in insulin-sensitive ponies. Hypoadiponectinaemia is a risk factor for endocrinopathic laminitis, but the directionality and nature of its association with insulin dysregulation is unclear. Objective: To investigate the effects of short-term induced hyperinsulinaemia and dexamethasone challenge on circulating [total adiponectin] and whole blood expression of adiponectin (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2), insulin, and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) receptors in insulin-sensitive ponies. Methods: In vivo experiment. Methods: Six never-laminitic, insulin-sensitive, native-breed UK ponies first underwent a dexamethasone challenge (...
Relationships between total adiponectin concentrations and obesity in native-breed ponies in England. Equine metabolic syndrome is a collection of risk factors associated with an increased risk of endocrinopathic laminitis. All affected animals display insulin dysregulation and some may show adiponectin dysregulation and/or excessive adiposity. However, the relationship between obesity and hypoadiponectinaemia in equids remains unclear. Objective: To investigate the relationship between obesity and circulating plasma total adiponectin (TA) concentrations in native-breed ponies in England. Methods: Secondary data analysis. Methods: Data collected for three previous studies were retrospectively ...
Diagnosis of equine endocrinopathies: The value of measuring blood glucose during an oral glucose test. Blood glucose concentration is often measured during an oral glucose test (OGT), but is not thought to aid in diagnosing insulin dysregulation (ID) or pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID). The aim of this retrospective study was to investigate whether the change in blood glucose concentration during an OGT aligned with indicators of equine metabolic syndrome or PPID, including serum insulin and plasma ACTH concentrations, clinical observations, age, sex, breed type and the test dose. The cohort included 149 horses, miniature horses, and ponies that had undergone an in-feed OGT and clin...
Associations between feeding and glucagon-like peptide-2 in healthy ponies. Gastrointestinal peptides, such as glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2), could play a direct role in the development of equine hyperinsulinaemia. Objective: To describe the secretory pattern of endogenous GLP-2 over 24 h in healthy ponies and determine whether oral administration of a synthetic GLP-2 peptide increases blood glucose or insulin responses to feeding. Methods: A cohort study followed by a randomised, controlled, cross-over study. Methods: In the cohort study, blood samples were collected every 2 h for 24 h in seven healthy ponies and plasma [GLP-2] was measured. In the cross-over...
Investigation of breed differences in plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone concentrations among healthy horses and ponies. Plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) concentration is commonly measured to diagnose pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID). Several intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect ACTH concentrations, including breed. The objective of this study was to prospectively compare plasma ACTH concentrations among different breeds of mature horses and ponies. Three breed groups comprised Thoroughbred horses (n = 127), Shetland ponies (n = 131) and ponies of non-Shetland breeds (n = 141). Enrolled animals did not show any signs of illness, lameness or clinical signs consistent with PPID. Blood ...
Welfare of extensively managed Swedish Gotland ponies. It has been suggested that grazing horses could be used as a credible tool for landscape conservation which would, at the same time, improve horse welfare as opposed to conventional housing. A study was conducted between May 2014 and April 2015 on 12 one year old Gotland ponies managed extensively without supplementary feed. Monthly animal welfare assessments (n = 13) revealed welfare issues in most of the horses, i.e. low body condition score (BCS 0) in the human approach test and BCS 350 eggs per gram [EPG]). These results indicate that the horses had acceptable welfare during late spring...
Association between insulin dysregulation and adrenocorticotropic hormone in aged horses and ponies with no clinical signs of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction. High concentrations of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) are used as an indicator of pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID), but other factors that may influence ACTH need to be understood, if diagnostic reference ranges for ACTH are to be used with confidence. Insulin dysregulation (ID) could be one such factor, as insulin affects pituitary hormones in other species. Objective: To test the hypothesis that a relationship exists between high insulin and high ACTH in aged (>15-year-old) animals with no clinical signs of PPID. Methods: A cohort study. Methods: Thirteen horses and eleve...
The effect of season, management and endocrinopathies on vitamin D status in horses. Vitamin D deficiency is common in humans and is increasingly linked to the pathogenesis of a multitude of diseases including obesity and metabolic syndrome. The biology of vitamin D in horses is poorly described; the relative contribution of the diet and skin synthesis to circulating concentrations is unclear and associations with the endocrine disease have not been explored. Objective: To determine the relationship between management, season and endocrine disease and vitamin D status in horses. Methods: Cross-sectional cohort study. Methods: Plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxyvitamin D2 (25(O...
Effects of pulsed inhaled nitric oxide delivery on the distribution of pulmonary perfusion in spontaneously breathing and mechanically ventilated anesthetized ponies. To measure changes in pulmonary perfusion during pulsed inhaled nitric oxide (PiNO) delivery in anesthetized, spontaneously breathing and mechanically ventilated ponies positioned in dorsal recumbency. Methods: 6 adult ponies. Methods: Ponies were anesthetized, positioned in dorsal recumbency in a CT gantry, and allowed to breathe spontaneously. Pulmonary artery, right atrial, and facial artery catheters were placed. Analysis time points were baseline, after 30 minutes of PiNO, and 30 minutes after discontinuation of PiNO. At each time point, iodinated contrast medium was injected, and CT angi...
Development of a method to measure regional perfusion of the lung in anesthetized ponies using computed tomography angiography and the maximum slope model. To develop a method based on CT angiography and the maximum slope model (MSM) to measure regional lung perfusion in anesthetized ponies. Methods: 6 ponies. Methods: Anesthetized ponies were positioned in dorsal recumbency in the CT gantry. Contrast was injected, and the lungs were imaged while ponies were breathing spontaneously and while they were mechanically ventilated. Two observers delineated regions of interest in aerated and atelectatic lung, and perfusion in those regions was calculated with the MSM. Measurements obtained with a computerized method were compared with manual measurement...
Effect of different inspired fractions of oxygen on F-shunt and arterial partial pressure of oxygen in isoflurane-anaesthetized and mechanically ventilated Shetland ponies. To determine the effect of fraction of inspired oxygen (FiO) on intrapulmonary shunt fraction as measured by F-shunt in ponies during isoflurane anaesthesia. Methods: Prospective, randomized clinical study. Methods: A group of 23 adult Shetland ponies undergoing a total of 32 anaesthetic procedures. Methods: Ponies were premedicated intravenously (IV) with detomidine (0.01 mg kg) and either morphine (0.1 mg kg) or butorphanol (0.02 mg kg). Anaesthesia was induced with ketamine (2.2 mg kg) and midazolam (0.07 mg kg) administered IV. Ponies were randomly allocated to maintenance of anaesthesia w...
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of l-methadone in isoflurane-anaesthetized and mechanically ventilated ponies. To evaluate the pharmacokinetics and selected pharmacodynamic effects of a commercially available l-methadone/fenpipramide combination administered to isoflurane anaesthetized ponies. Methods: Prospective single-group interventional study. Methods: A group of six healthy adult research ponies (four mares, two geldings). Methods: Ponies were sedated with intravenous (IV) detomidine (0.02 mg kg) and butorphanol (0.01 mg kg) for an unrelated study. Additional IV detomidine (0.004 mg kg) was administered 85 minutes later, followed by induction of anaesthesia using IV diazepam (0.05 mg kg) and keta...
Clinical and biochemical factors associated with survival in equids attacked by dogs: 28 cases (2008-2016). Trauma from dog attacks has been associated with mortality rates as high as 23% in some species. However, the prognosis and clinical features of this type of injury have not been described in equids. Objective: To describe survival rate, signalment, clinical features, and biochemical results in equids presented for emergency care after presumed dog attacks. We hypothesized there would be differences between survivors and nonsurvivors. Methods: A total of 28 equids presented for presumed dog attacks from 3 referral centers. Methods: A retrospective study was performed using data from 3 hospital...
Changes in the faecal microbiota of horses and ponies during a two-year body weight gain programme. Obesity is a major health concern in many domesticated equids animals since it is related to metabolic abnormalities such as insulin dysregulation, hyperlipidaemia or laminitis. Ponies especially are known as "easy keepers" and are often affected by obesity and its related metabolic disorders. Research in the last decade indicated that the intestinal microbiota may play an important role in the development of obesity, at least in humans. Therefore, the objective of our study was to characterize changes in the faecal microbiota during a two-year weight gain programme which compared ponies and w...
