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Topic:Colic
Colic is a common gastrointestinal condition in horses characterized by abdominal pain and discomfort. It can result from various causes, including gas buildup, intestinal blockage, or inflammation. The severity of colic can vary, ranging from mild discomfort to life-threatening situations requiring surgical intervention. Signs of colic in horses may include restlessness, pawing at the ground, rolling, and changes in eating or drinking behavior. Diagnosis often involves physical examination, rectal palpation, and sometimes imaging techniques. Treatment depends on the underlying cause and may involve medical management or surgical procedures. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the causes, diagnosis, treatment, and management of colic in horses.
Use of a caudal intercostal block in horses undergoing surgery for colic. In humans and companion animals, regional anaesthesia is used in multimodal analgesic protocols for abdominal wall surgery. Benefits include earlier patient mobilisation and improved pain scores. Regional anaesthetic techniques for horses undergoing abdominal surgery could provide similar benefits and warrant investigation. Objective: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of a caudal intercostal block for abdominal surgery (CIBAS) in horses undergoing surgery for colic. Methods: Blinded, randomised clinical trial. Methods: Horses (n = 22) undergoing exploratory celiotomy for colic were rando...
Serial Postoperative Blood and Peritoneal Fluid Analysis and Ultrasonographic Assessment in Client-Owned Horses Undergoing Ventral Midline Exploratory Celiotomy for Colic. Postoperative monitoring, including evaluation of peritoneal fluid, is used to aid in the diagnosis and treatment plan for complications after colic surgery. The primary objective of this study was to determine serial venous and peritoneal postoperative variables, including L-lactate values in horses after ventral midline exploratory celiotomy. A secondary objective was to evaluate postoperative abdominal ultrasonography as a predictor of complications. A total of 36 client-owned horses with signs of colic undergoing ventral midline exploratory celiotomy were prospectively enrolled in the stud...
Centrifugation of peritoneal fluid improves visual assessment of strangulating lesions in equine colic. Early and accurate recognition of a strangulating lesion is essential to expedite surgical intervention in horses presenting with colic. Objective: To evaluate the use of a colour grading scale in the visual assessment of peritoneal fluid, before and after centrifugation, and assess its ability to predict the presence of a strangulating lesion. Methods: Prospective clinical study. Methods: Peritoneal fluid samples from 231 equids presenting with colic were visually analysed immediately after collection and assigned a numerical value based on a developed colour scale. Peritoneal fluid was centr...
Depth and distribution of colonic sand accumulation in a desert population of horses and its association with diagnosis of sand colic. To describe patient and management characteristics associated with radiographic sand accumulation in a desert population of horses, as well as identify factors independently associated with a diagnosis of sand colic and need for surgical intervention. Unassigned: Horses were prospectively allocated into 3 groups: control horses, horses with sand colic, and horses with non-sand-associated colic. Signalment, radiographs, and management outcomes were compared between groups. Unassigned: Median depth of sand was significantly greater in horses diagnosed with sand colic compared to other groups (11...
From Diet to Disease: The Role of the Gut Microbiome and Microbial Metabolites in Horses. The equine gastrointestinal microbiome plays an essential role in digestion, energy metabolism, immune regulation, and maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. Increasing evidence suggests that microbial-derived metabolites provide a functional link between diet, the microbiome, and host physiology. This narrative review summarizes current knowledge on how dietary factors, including structural carbohydrates, non-structural carbohydrates, protein, and lipids, influence microbial function and metabolite production in horses. Relevant publications available up to June 2026 were identified through s...
Efficiency of a Combination of Polyethylene Glycol and Psyllium on the Evacuation of Sand Compared to Established Treatment Regimes in Sand Enteropathy of the Horse. The accumulation of sand in the abdomen is a rising risk for colic in horses. Sand mainly accumulates in the ascending colon in the cranioventral abdomen. Evacuation of sand is facilitated by the application of psyllium supported with a laxative via nasogastric intubation. Laxatives currently used are either sodium sulfate/magnesium sulfate or mineral oil. The aim of this study was to compare the efficiency of polyethylene glycol, a laxative already used in human medicine for chronic constipation, with that of the above-described, established therapy options. Therefore, 44 horses diagnosed wit...
Concurrent Small Intestinal Neoplasia And Large Colon Volvulus In A Standardbred Yearling. Large colon volvulus is a common, life-threatening cause of colic in horses. Gastrointestinal neoplasia is a rare cause of abdominal pain in young horses. A 1-year-old Standardbred colt presented with acute colic unresponsive to medical treatment. An exploratory laparotomy identified extensive gastrointestinal pathology, and euthanasia was elected due to a poor prognosis. Necropsy revealed a 360-degree volvulus of the caecum and large colon with adhesions, enterotyphlocolitis, and a well-circumscribed mesenteric mass arising from the small intestine. Histopathology in combination with immunohi...
Clinical and pathologic findings of splenic tumours in four horses: a case series. Splenic tumours are rare in horses, with limited published literature consisting primarily of individual case reports and one hepato-splenic lymphoma case series. This case series analyses the clinical presentation, diagnostic findings and clinical outcomes of four cases of splenic neoplasia that presented to a university referral hospital over a three year period (2022-2025). Methods: Presented are two cases of primary splenic lymphoma, and two cases of metastatic melanoma. Three cases (75%) presented with chronic, non-specific clinical signs including weight loss, colic and ventral oedema. O...
The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Equine Colic: A Scoping Review of Diagnostic, Prognostic, and Decision-Support Applications. Equine colic remains one of the leading causes of mortality in horses, with timely diagnosis and accurate prognostic assessment being critical for clinical decision-making. In recent years, artificial intelligence (AI) has been increasingly applied to support diagnostic and prognostic evaluation in veterinary medicine. However, the scope, methodological characteristics, and performance of AI models in equine colic have not been systematically mapped. Therefore, this scoping review was conducted to summarize current AI applications in equine colic, identify commonly used algorithms, describe re...
Comparison of Rectal and Intraoperative Findings in Horses with Colic. Per rectum examination (PRE) is commonly used in the triage of horses with acute abdominal pain, despite reports of associated risk factors for both horses and personnel, but its diagnostic accuracy is questionable. This multicenter, observational study aimed to evaluate the agreement between PRE findings and surgical findings obtained via exploratory laparotomy in horses with colic. A total of 201 cases from four equine referral hospitals across Europe were included. Rectal findings were categorized as primary (most likely cause of colic) or additional. Agreement with surgical findings was as...
A Comprehensive Review of the Equine Gut Microbiome in Health and Disease. Molecular microbiology has revolutionized our understanding of the complex host-associated microbiomes required for normative development and physiology. Horses and other members of the family are particularly reliant on the early maturation and lifelong maintenance of an unusually rich hindgut microbiome for optimal digestion and overall health and performance. Research on the equine gut microbiome has accelerated in the past several years, necessitating a renewed appraisal of the field. The present work is a comprehensive and critical review of the literature regarding the bacterial gastroi...
Risk factors for post-partum colic in a population of UK and Irish Thoroughbred broodmares. Broodmares are at increased risk of gastrointestinal colic. However, colic risk factors specific to this population have not been investigated. Objective: To investigate horse- and management-level risk factors for post-partum colic in a cohort of Thoroughbred broodmares in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Methods: Prospective, nested case-control study. Methods: Twenty-nine Thoroughbred stud farms in the United Kingdom and Ireland were recruited, and 1044 mares were followed over the 2021 and/or 2022 foaling seasons. Data were collected on signalment, medical and management history for post-pa...
Fatalities within seven days after equine standing sedation: A prospective, multicentre study. Information regarding mortality associated with standing procedures in horses is sparse. Objective: To report data from >12,000 standing sedations. Methods: Confidential, observational, prospective, multicentre, cohort study. Methods: We collected records of horses/ponies undergoing standing sedation for surgery or advanced diagnostic imaging using at least one top-up or controlled rate infusion (CRI). Procedures were either NON-COLIC or COLIC. Outcome at seven days was recorded as (i) ALIVE, (ii) EUTHANASIA or (iii) DEAD. Data were collected with a portable document format (PDF) questionn...
Parascaris spp. induced surgical colic in juvenile horses-A Scandinavian perspective. Parascaris spp. commonly infects foals, and high burdens can cause fatal small intestinal impactions. Progressive anthelmintic resistance poses a risk for an increase of Parascaris spp. related disease in juvenile horses. Objective: To investigate Parascaris-related surgical intestinal lesions, with special emphasis on ascarid impactions, in Scandinavia by exploring (1) disease occurrence and (2) short-term survival rates after laparotomy in affected foals and yearlings. Methods: Restrospective case series. Methods: A retrospective clinical record search was conducted at six Scandinavian equin...
Clinical Signs of Liver Disease in Horses. Clinical signs associated with liver disease in horses are often a reflection of underlying hepatic dysfunction but typically vague rather than pathognomonic. Many observed clinical signs are subtle or not recognizable in the early stages of liver disease and thus may appear acute in onset despite an underlying chronic condition. Clinical signs reported in horses with liver disease include hyporexia or anorexia, weight loss, changes in demeanor, hepatic encephalopathy, colic signs, icterus, photosensitization, diarrhea, clinical coagulopathies, ascites, peripheral edema, steatorrhea, pruritus,...
Imaging of the Equine Abdomen Using Point of Care Ultrasound (POCUS)-A Resource for the Equine Practitioner. Wireless ultrasound (US) probes for point of care (POC) evaluation of horses presented for veterinary evaluation of colic have become widely available in recent years. The availability and performance of this technology mean POCUS is readily available to the equine practitioner and the technology is well suited to patient evaluation or serial monitoring in first opinion practice. In human health care and veterinary contexts, it has been suggested that there is a need for practitioners to better appreciate the value of POCUS for assessment of gastrointestinal structure and function. This study ...
Morbidity associated with inhalation anesthesia in horses: the role of opioid use in a university teaching hospital. Despite concerns among equine practitioners, the effects of opioid administration on intraoperative complications during inhalation anesthesia remain incompletely characterized. This retrospective study evaluated intraoperative complications and perianesthetic mortality in horses undergoing inhalation anesthesia according to opioid use. Medical records from a university veterinary hospital were reviewed (2014-2025) and grouped based on opioid inclusion in anesthetic protocols and surgery type (colic vs. non-colic). Intraoperative hypotension (MAP < 70 mmHg), hypothermia (temperature 65 mmH...
Evaluation of systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria in horses with colic associated with acute gastrointestinal disease. Systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) is a severe clinical condition commonly observed in horses with acute gastrointestinal disease associated with colic and is linked to increased risk of organ dysfunction and mortality. Early identification of SIRS and reliable prognostic indicators are essential to improve clinical management. This study aimed to assess the occurrence of SIRS in adult horses with colic, evaluate its association with outcome, and investigate the prognostic value of selected clinicopathological variables. Unassigned: A total of 41 adult horses admitted for acute gas...
Use of Intraperitoneal Lidocaine in Horses Undergoing Laparotomy for Colic. Perioperative lidocaine is widely used in horses with acute abdomen for its analgesic, prokinetic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-endotoxic effects, although evidence of its visceral analgesic efficacy remains inconclusive. Given the potential of alternative routes of administration for local anaesthetics, this prospective, randomised, unblinded clinical trial evaluated whether intraperitoneal (IP) lidocaine improves early postoperative recovery, including recovery from anaesthesia and the first 24 h after laparotomy for colic. A Multifactorial Numerical Rating Composite Pain Scale for equines wa...
Activity of 1,2-o-dilauryl-rac-glycero-3-glutaric acid-(6′-methylresorufin) ester lipase in peritoneal fluid may be associated with strangulating lesions, pancreatic fibrosis, and negative outcome in horses with colic. To compare plasma and peritoneal 1,2-o-dilauryl-rac-glycero-3-glutaric acid-(6'-methylresorufin) ester (DGGR) lipase activity between horses with and without colic signs and document pancreatic histopathology in a subset of horses. Unassigned: This prospective, cross-sectional study included university-owned or donated healthy horses and client-owned horses presenting to the veterinary teaching hospital for colic. Peritoneal WBC and lactate concentrations and plasma and peritoneal DGGR lipase activity were measured. Pancreatic tissue was collected via convenience sampling. Pancreatic fibrosis ...
Near-Term Extrauterine Pregnancy Secondary To Uterine Rupture In A Mare. Uterine rupture is an uncommon but life-threatening complication of equine reproduction, typically associated with dystocia, uterine torsion, fetal manipulation, or hydrops. Tears may occur in either the uterine horns or body, although involvement of the ventral uterine body is rare. This case report describes an 11-year-old Arabian mare at 350 days of gestation that developed abdominal pregnancy secondary to uterine torsion and full-thickness ventral uterine rupture, resulting in fetal death and the free presence of the fetus within the peritoneal cavity. Surgical removal of the fetus and pri...
Structural Features of the Equine Small Intestinal Mesenteric Attachment Predisposing to Rupture. Rupture of equine small intestine with formation of a pouch of ingesta within the mesentery has been reported in clinical colic cases. Multiple ex-vivo studies using anastomosed jejunum observed rupture into the mesentery, distant to the anastomosis. Both scenarios suggest the jejunum is predisposed to rupture at the mesenteric attachment. The aim of the study is to 1) document the location at which equine jejunal segments rupture when subjected to high intraluminal pressures, 2) identify predisposing anatomical features that may confer weakness at the point of rupture and 3) demonstrate jejun...
Impact of evidence-based information on horse owners’ misconceptions of colic. Misconceptions can be defined as 'false, persistent beliefs' or 'inaccurate, prior knowledge' and can influence decision-making. Objective: To investigate the impact of evidence-based information on UK horse owners' decision-making for colic. Methods: Mixed-methods cross-sectional study. Methods: An online survey was distributed to UK horse owners, with four sections: owner demographics; views on decision-making and referral to an equine hospital facility for colic; current knowledge and approach to colic; impact of evidence-based information (including evidence on recognising and responding t...
Successful nutritional management of a warmblood horse with multiple pathologies that respond to nutrition. This report describes the nutritional management of an 18-year-old, 553 kg gelding warmblood used for dressage lessons that presented with severe weight loss, marked muscle atrophy, poor dentition, sabulous urolithiasis, gastric ulcers, and later small colon impaction. On admission, the diet consisted of ad libitum wheat straw and mixed cereals (73:27 forage:concentrate), providing 2% of body weight as dry matter without vitamin-mineral supplementation. Marked deficiencies were identified in digestible energy (38%), crude protein (20%), lysine, threonine, vitamins, and minerals, while sugar an...
Abdominal palpation per rectum is highly sensitive for identifying small versus large intestinal lesions in horses presenting for colic. To describe the sensitivity, specificity, predictive values, and accuracy of abdominal palpation per rectum in horses treated surgically for colic. Unassigned: Medical records were gathered over 5 years (2019 to 2024). Findings of abdominal palpation per rectum were collected and compared to surgical diagnosis, and cases were categorized as true or false positive and negative. Signalment, physical examination parameters, hematologic values, and years of examiner experience were recorded. Unassigned: Records of 453 horses were included. Overall sensitivity and positive predictive value were 86%...
Equine Salmonella in Argentina: Genetic relatedness with humans and other animal species and first detection of serovar Freetown. Salmonellosis in horses can cause severe enteritis with diarrhea, fever, and colic, which is usually severe in foals and hospitalized or immunocompromised animals. Carrier horses may intermittently shed Salmonella, thereby acting as a source of infection for other animals and humans. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and molecular subtyping of Salmonella spp. in horses from Argentina, focusing on potential zoonotic relevance. Only a single isolate (S. Newport) was obtained from fecal samples of 249 clinically healthy horses (2018-2022), indicating a very low carrier detec...
Malignant Ovarian Teratoma in a Lusitano Filly: Diagnostic Challenges and Clinical Significance. An 8-month-old Lusitano filly (a young female horse) was referred with a five-day history of abdominal distension, respiratory distress, and hyporexia. Clinical and ultrasonographic examinations revealed ventral edema, anemia, leukocytosis, hypoalbuminemia, and bilateral pleural effusion. The filly subsequently developed progressive clinical deterioration, including persistent hyporexia, scant fecal output, and acute colic with nasogastric reflux, followed by sudden respiratory decompensation, collapse, and death. Post-mortem examination revealed a large, multilobulated abdominal mass involvin...
Caudal esophageal achalasia in a Quarter Horse colt. Achalasia is the most common motility disorder of the esophagus in humans and has been diagnosed in cats and dogs. We describe a 4-month-old Quarter Horse colt with failure to thrive, recurrent colic episodes, and aspiration pneumonia, in which fluoroscopic evaluation identified a caudal esophageal motility disorder consistent with achalasia. Necropsy examination confirmed achalasia.
New Diagnostic Score for Sepsis in Adult Horses with Acute Gastrointestinal Disease. Colic is a leading cause of mortality in horses, particularly when associated with systemic inflammation and organ dysfunction. In human medicine, these complications are associated with sepsis, defined as organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated, life-threatening host response to infection. However, no consensus sepsis score exists for adult horses. This retrospective study aimed to develop a diagnostic sepsis score for adult horses. Medical records from 295 horses admitted for colic to the Oniris equine emergency department (Nantes, France) between July 2011 and November 2021 were analyzed...
Clinical nutrition in equine colic: a scoping review from an equine nutritionist’s perspective. Colic represents one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in equine medicine, with nutritional management recognized as a key modifiable factor influencing postoperative recovery. However, guiding principles for nutritional enteral support in horses after colic remain limited, and current practices are largely empirical. Objective: This scoping review aimed to (1) examine enteral nutritional support protocols reported in literature through a scoping review to map the available evidence on equine clinical nutrition in the context of colic, and (2) propose a physiology-based interpre...
