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Topic:Exercise Physiology
Exercise physiology in horses involves the study of the physiological responses and adaptations of horses to physical activity. This field examines how exercise impacts various systems in the equine body, including the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular, and metabolic systems. Researchers focus on understanding how these systems interact during different types and intensities of exercise, and how they contribute to performance and recovery. Key areas of interest include the assessment of aerobic and anaerobic capacity, muscle fiber composition, energy metabolism, and thermoregulation. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanisms of exercise physiology in horses, with an emphasis on performance optimization, training regimens, and the prevention of exercise-related disorders.
Training- and competition-related changes on circulating adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol response in Thoroughbred Racehorses. Exercise is a physiological challenge inducing intensity-dependent hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses. The hypothesis was that training and racing sessions induce different HPA axis activation. Objective: To assess whether different exercise sessions affect equine adrenal responsiveness according to age and sex. Methods: Ten clinically healthy Thoroughbred racehorses (6 females and 4 males) were recruited. Four were 2 years old and six were 3 years old. Horses were subjected to two exercise conditions: training and competitive racing sessions. Blood samples were collected at r...
Pilot Study on the Development and Assessment of a Novel Sensor for Measuring Rein Tension. Effective horse-rider communication is essential in equestrian sports, both for performance and animal welfare. Rein tension, which is often applied through negative reinforcement (i.e., the release of pressure to reward a desired response), plays a central role in this interaction. However, high or inconsistent tension can lead to discomfort or injury, particularly in the mouth cavity. While previous studies have analyzed rein tension in basic gaits such as walk, trot, and canter, limited research exists on more complex maneuvers like jumping or abrupt stops. This pilot study introduces a cus...
Transforming retraining: Supporting racehorses to have successful second careers. Optimizing long-term welfare outcomes for Thoroughbred racehorses following retirement from racing is a priority across the global horse racing industry. Following their racing career, horses are required to adapt to a markedly different lifestyle, involving substantial physical, behavioural, and mental adjustment. This study consulted experienced retrainers to identify factors that inform successful retraining and transition of former racehorses to promote positive lifelong outcomes beyond racing. An online survey of 100 global stakeholders experienced in retraining former racehorses explor...
Measuring Activity-Rest Condition by Using Two Different Accelerometer Devices in Trained and Retired Horses. To advance technological applications in animal welfare assessment, this study evaluated resting activity as a component of total locomotor activity (TLA) in horses using two different accelerometer devices: a collar-mounted device containing a single-axis accelerometer that records physical movement, and a three axes accelerometer that classifies the measured physical activity into nine different activities. Ten clinically healthy Italian saddle horses were enrolled in the study and divided into two groups on the basis of their lifestyle. Group A consisted of regularly trained horses housed c...
Effects of Exercise on Ocular Parameters and Oxidative Stress Biomarkers in Saliva and Tear Fluid of Horses. Physical exercise is a physiological stressor in horses and may induce oxidative stress through increased production of reactive oxygen species. Saliva and tear fluid are accessible non-invasive matrices that may reflect oxidative balance, while ocular parameters including intraocular pressure (IOP), tear secretion (TS) and central corneal thickness (CCT) are key components of ocular homeostasis. Objective: To evaluate the effects of a standardised submaximal exercise session on IOP, TS and CCT, and on oxidative stress biomarkers (CAT, SOD, GSH, MDA, IMA) measured in saliva and tear fluid. Met...
Infrared Thermographic Assessment of Exercise-Induced Changes in Local Surface Temperature in Horses Following Treadmill Training: Preliminary Findings. Physical exercise induces physiological adaptations associated with increased muscular activity, metabolic heat production, and changes in body surface temperature. Infrared thermography has emerged as a non-invasive technique for assessing these thermal responses in horses. The present study aimed to evaluate the ability of infrared thermography to detect changes in mean local surface temperature and to qualitatively assess alterations in thermal distribution patterns following treadmill exercise. Methods: Three clinically healthy Warmblood horses were monitored over 10 consecutive training s...
The effect of intravenous fluids administered prior to competition: A randomized clinical. Administration of intravenous fluids prior to competition is common at major equestrian competitions, yet few studies have evaluated the benefits of this practice. Objective: The hypothesis was that pre-ride intravenous fluid therapy would be associated with a lower heart rate and improved laboratory hydration parameters during or after the ride. Methods: 14 client owned horses entered in a 45 km ride in extreme heat and terrain were randomly assigned to receive IV fluids (IVF) or no IV fluids (NIV) the day before the ride. Blood samples and physical examination findings were collected at 6 ti...
Horses undergoing supramaximal fixed-speed treadmill exercise after administration of furosemide experience less severe acidosis and slower onset of fatigue. To document changes in acid-base and ion balance during exercise following furosemide administration and to relate them to performance. Unassigned: 6 fit Thoroughbred horses received 0.5 mg/kg IV furosemide (F) or a placebo (C) in randomized crossover order 4 hours before galloping to fatigue on a treadmill at the speed equated with an oxygen demand of 1.15 X maximum oxygen consumption (V˙o2max). Arterial and mixed venous blood was sampled before treatment, preexercise, after 2-minute warm-up, at fatigue, and 1 minute postexercise. The pH, temperature-corrected Pco2, total CO2, and sodium, po...
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response and glucose homeostasis during exercise to fatigue before and after training in old and young adult Standardbred mares. While reduced cortisol responses to exercise have been described in older horses, the effects of aging and training on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) and downstream metabolic signaling are currently unknown. Unassigned: This study tested the hypothesis that age and exercise training alter the response of the HPA axis, insulin, and glucose during an acute exercise challenge to fatigue. Methods: Six old (22.0±0.7 years) and six young adult (7.3±0.6 years) unfit Standardbred mares were tested. Mares ran a graded exercise test before (GXT1) and after (GXT2) 8 weeks of trainin...
Effects of IGF1 Knockdown and Overexpression on the Phenotype and Function of Equine Primary Skeletal Muscle Cells. Skeletal muscle serves as the direct executor of movement, and the proliferation and migration capacities of its constituent cells represent the key physiological foundation determining equine endurance and speed. Previous whole-transcriptome analysis has shown that Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 () is significantly upregulated in following racing and is involved in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway; however, its specific regulatory mechanism in equine skeletal muscle cells remains unclear. This study utilized primary equine skeletal muscle cells as a model. By constructing an overexpression plas...
The Utility and Reliability of Treadmill Tests for Monitoring Thoroughbreds in Training. This study evaluated the reliability of five treadmill protocols that assess heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (Bla) responses in Thoroughbred horses to determine their effectiveness in serving as potential tools for monitoring fitness and the wellbeing of racehorses. Of the five exercise tests, four consisted of repeated interval gallops at constant speeds (8 m/s and 10 m/s) and grade (6°) and one test of a continuous gallop at constant speeds (8 m/s) and grade (6°). Eight hundred and twenty-three gallops in total were performed by 64 horses. The test-retest reliability and absolute agreeme...
Case report: exercise-associated sudden death in a Thoroughbred racehorse with cardiac lesions. Exercise-associated sudden death (EASD), defined as acute collapse and death in an apparently healthy racehorse during or within ~1 h after exercise, is currently among the top concerns in the racing industry. Cases of EASD with no cause of death identified at necropsy are frequently presumed to be of cardiac origin. In such cases, in addition to a regular necropsy, a cardiac examination protocol is performed that includes a detailed gross examination and microscopic evaluation of 11 regions of the heart. Very often this protocol is unrewarding because there are no microscopic lesions to expl...
Thoroughbred horses susceptible to Recurrent Exertional Rhabdomyolysis have elevated skeletal muscle mitochondrial capacities. Recurrent Exertional Rhabdomyolysis (RER) is a skeletal muscle disease that can intermittently impede careers of equine athletes. Manifesting as episodes of muscular stiffness and degeneration, RER causes lost training and competition days. RER is associated with abnormal intracellular calcium (Ca) regulation. Calcium released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum to initiate contraction may also be transported into mitochondria, which impacts energy production. RER-susceptible horses exhibit down-regulated mitochondrial proteins but upregulated mitochondrial genes. Thus, mitochondrial function may ...
Conserved skeletal muscle transcriptomic responses to pacing strategies in Thoroughbred horses. This study investigated whether different pacing patterns during high-intensity exercise elicit distinct transcriptional responses in equine skeletal muscle. Eight Thoroughbred horses completed two treadmill exercise sessions in a randomized crossover design. In the positive-pacing condition, horses exercised at 110% maximal O₂ uptake (V˙O₂max) for 1 min followed by 90% V˙O₂max for 1 min, whereas in the negative-pacing condition, the order was reversed. At 4 h after exercise, the positive-pacing protocol resulted in upregulation of 1,989 genes and downregulation of 840 genes, whereas t...
Untargeted Sweat Metabolomics and Targeted Plasma Amino Acid Profiling Reveal Dynamic Metabolic Remodeling During Conditioning in Yili Horses. Training induces sweat morphology changes in horses from muddy sweat (MS) to foamy sweat (FS) and clear sweat (CS), reflecting physiological adaptation. However, the metabolic mechanisms linking sweat phenotypes to systemic amino acid dynamics remain unclear. This study integrated sweat untargeted metabolomics and plasma amino acid targeted metabolomics to reveal coordinated metabolic remodeling. Six 2-year-old horse stallions underwent 10-week training. Plasma and sweat were sampled pre- and post-race at each stage. LC-MS/MS and UHPLC-MS/MS were used for sweat metabolome and plasma amino aci...
Short-term provision of moderate dietary starch alters fecal microbiota but does not exacerbate exercise-induced inflammation in yearling Quarter Horses. Energy-dense feeds commonly provided to equine athletes may be high in starch, which alter gastrointestinal microbiota and could promote systemic inflammation. Objective: To test the hypothesis that exercise-induced inflammation would be greater in horses receiving a starch- versus fiber-based concentrate. Methods: Quarter Horses (mean±SD 16±1mo; 337±30kg) received either a fiber-based control (CON; 7 fillies, 8 geldings) or an isocaloric, isonitrogenous starch concentrate (STARCH; 8 fillies, 7 geldings) for 24d. Fecal metagenomics were evaluated on d0 and 21. Blood inflammatory mediators w...
Physiological Evaluation of Quarter Horses Undergoing Five-Month Taming Focused on Hippotherapy. Preparing horses for hippotherapy programs requires management approaches that prioritize animal welfare and facilitate adaptation to novel stimuli. This study monitored physiological responses during the implementation of a progressive taming protocol for Quarter Horses intended for hippotherapy. Seven animals were monitored over a five-month period, including an acclimation phase and three taming stages. Continuous heart rate, plasma cortisol concentration, and ocular infrared thermography were assessed before and after exercise. Baseline ( = 0.0466) and minimum ( = 0.0095) heart rate values...
Validation of a smart textile electrocardiographic monitoring device in racehorses during high-speed exercise. Exercise-associated cardiac arrhythmias may contribute to poor performance and sudden cardiac death in horses. Widespread monitoring is limited by device availability and suitability for field use. Objective: To (1) compare electrocardiographic (ECG) quality from a smart textile system (Myant Skiin Equine) with a reference device (Televet II) during exercise, and (2) evaluate whether arrhythmia detection with Myant Skiin Equine is comparable to the Televet II. Methods: Prospective blinded clinical study. Methods: Fifty racehorses (25 Thoroughbreds, 25 Standardbreds) underwent up to three high-...
Effect of exercise-related nasopharyngeal disorders on upper airway function in racehorses. Exercise-related upper respiratory tract (URT) disorders are frequently diagnosed in racehorses. Treatment recommendations are routinely based on subjective assessment of clinical evaluation and exercising endoscopy findings. Objective: To objectively investigate how palatal instability (PI), intermittent dorsal displacement of the soft palate (iDDSP), alar fold collapse (AFC), and nasopharyngeal collapse (NPC) affect upper airway function during exercise in racehorses. Methods: Observational study with case-control comparisons. Methods: Inspiratory and expiratory tracheal pressures (cmHO) wer...
Smartphone-Based Technologies in Equine Sports Medicine: Supporting Athlete Management-A Review. Equine sports medicine is increasingly oriented toward objective, field-based monitoring systems that support both performance optimization and welfare assessment. In this context, smartphone-based technologies have emerged as accessible tools capable of integrating data acquisition, processing, and interpretation within a single platform. This narrative review aims to examine the role of smartphones in equine sports medicine, focusing on their function as standalone sensing devices and as gateways for wearable and external sensor systems. The analysis is based on a structured synthesis of cur...
Detecting and measuring respiratory events in horses during exercise with a microphone: deep learning vs. standard signal processing. Monitoring respiration parameters such as respiratory rate could be beneficial to understand the impact of training on equine health and performance and ultimately improve equine welfare. In this work, we compare deep learning-based methods to an adapted signal processing method to automatically detect cyclic respiratory events and extract the dynamic respiratory rate from microphone recordings during high-intensity exercise in Standardbred trotters. Results: Our deep learning models are able to detect exhalation sounds (median F1 score of 0.94) in noisy microphone signals and show promising r...
Differences in Stride Characteristics Between Lead and Wheel Horses in Competitive Chuckwagon Racing. In Chuckwagon racing, teams of four Thoroughbreds with two lead horses in front and two wheel horses directly behind pull a 600 kg wagon around a racetrack. Our study focuses on stride parameters that have previously retrospectively predicted impending injuries. We hypothesize that in aid of the initiation of the tight figure-of-eight turn at the start of the race, the more agile lead horses gallop with higher stride frequency (SF) and reduced stride length (SL), and that differences are exacerbated in the initial accelerative race segments. Methods: Speed, SF, and SL were quantified with glob...
The effects of upper airway obstruction on oxygen consumption and ventilatory variables in Colombian criollo horses. While conditions associated with upper airway obstruction (UAO) are reported in Colombian Criollo horses, their effect on ventilation and performance is unknown. Objective: To investigate how oxygen consumption ($dot{rm V}$O2), ventilation,, and exercise-induced pulmonary hemorrhage (EIPH) are affected by UAO in horses performing at natural gaits. Methods: Twenty-three client-owned Colombian Criollo horses. Methods: A cross-sectional observational study assigned horses to a control (C), or UAO group after overground endoscopy. All horses performed a standardized submaximal exercise test while ...
Mitochondrial Adaptations to Exercise Training in Equine Skeletal Muscle: A Narrative Review. The horse represents one of the most physiologically specialized athletic mammals, capable of sustaining both high-intensity and prolonged exercise. Central to this remarkable performance capacity is the metabolic adaptability of skeletal muscle and its mitochondrial network. This narrative review synthesizes current evidence from equine, human, and rodent studies on exercise-induced mitochondrial remodeling in equine skeletal muscle. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus using terms related to equine exercise physiology, mitochondrial biolog...
Aqua training promotes changes of skeletal muscle mass in show jumping horses. The correct prescription of aquatic treadmill training for equine athletes depends on understanding the muscular changes generated by working in the water. Objective: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that the inclusion of a water treadmill in a routine training protocol would alter muscle mass of show jumping horses. Methods: Six fit-to-compete horses were trained for 10 weeks with a water treadmill (twice a week, 20 minutes, water level at the carpus), in addition to regular physical exercise. Body composition, infrared thermography (IRT) of propulsive muscles (m. brachiocepha...
Syndrome of High Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase in Racehorses. Horses in racing and race training can develop high gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) syndrome (HGS), or increased GGT without overt evidence of primary liver disease. Current evidence points toward overtraining and a response to oxidative stress, but the etiology is incompletely understood. Evidence for an association of HGS with poor performance is mixed. Without a clear understanding of the etiology, the only evidence-based treatment option is rest or reduced training intensity. More research is needed to determine whether HGS is a physiologic adaptation, perhaps indicative of overtraining b...
Comparative cardiac histopathology and toxicology screens in horses succumbing to exercise-associated sudden cardiac death and control horses. Horse racing has faced increased scrutiny because of concerns about equine welfare and the safety of both equine and human participants. Sudden death (SD) in racehorses is relatively uncommon, and its causes are still unclear. Little information and considerable confusion exist regarding the clinical significance of microscopic lesions in the hearts of horses with SD. We examined the hearts of 29 horses that suffered exercise-associated sudden cardiac death (EASCD) and 29 clinically healthy control horses that were euthanized because of catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries. Acute cardiomyocyt...
Prevalence of cardiac arrhythmias in poorly performing horses. Electrocardiogram abnormalities are common in racehorses and can affect performance. Unassigned: This study aimed to analyze the results of electrocardiographic problems and measure the frequencies of various cardiac arrhythmias. Unassigned: This cross-sectional study was conducted between September 2023 and August 2024. Standard electrocardiographic recordings were obtained from all horses, and cardiac troponin levels were measured. Out of the 114 poorly performing adult horses, 10 cases without arrhythmia were considered the control group. Seventy-four horses (64.9%) had at least one type of...
Integrative Metabolomic and Echocardiographic Profiling Reveals Metabolic-Cardiac Structural Coupling in Yili Horses During Incremental Exercise. This study integrated echocardiography with widely targeted metabolomics to decipher how plasma metabolic dynamics couple with cardiac geometry in Yili horses during incremental treadmill exercise. Nine speed-type horses underwent a graded exercise test (6% incline; 0 to 9 m/s). Jugular venous blood samples collected at rest (0 m/s) and at 3, 5, 7, and 9 m/s were profiled by LC-MS, and Pearson correlation analysis was applied to relate differentially expressed metabolites (DEMs) to twenty echocardiographic structural indices. A core set of 314 shared DEMs (124 upregulated, 190 downregulated) w...
Is the walk and trot efficiency a hereditary trait in primitive Konik Polski horses? Performance testing is a critical tool for achieving genetic progress, yet its long-term effectiveness in primitive breeds under conservation programs is poorly documented. The Konik Polski horse breeding program aims to improve utility while preserving primitive characteristics. Unassigned: This retrospective study analyzed a 25-year longitudinal dataset ( = 1,608) from the official Field Performance Test to quantify genetic trends in gait efficiency, using nonparametric methods to assess the effects of test type, year, and age on stride length and speed at the walk and trot. To estimate he...
