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Topic:Inflammation
Inflammation is a biological response of the horse's body to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a complex process that involves the activation of immune cells, the release of inflammatory mediators, and changes in blood flow. In horses, inflammation can manifest in various forms, affecting different tissues and organs, including the joints, respiratory system, and skin. The inflammatory response is an essential component of the horse's immune system, aiming to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, clear out damaged cells and tissues, and establish tissue repair. This topic page gathers peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanisms, effects, and management of inflammation in equine health.
Evaluating ex vivo toll-like receptor agonist response as a potential biomarker in equine gastric ulcer syndrome. Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is highly prevalent in horses. Despite its presumed painful nature, evaluation of objective biomarkers associated with EGUS presence and severity remains limited. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) following ex vivo stimulation of toll-like receptors 2 and 4 (TLR2 and TLR4) as a potential biomarker for EGUS status, with gastric lesions used as a proxy for presumed EGUS-associated pain. Venous blood was collected from 77 horses, PBMCs were isolated ...
Computed Tomographic Lesion Descriptors in Foals With Hematogenous Osteomyelitis: Interobserver Agreement and Association With Outcome. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly used to diagnose osteomyelitis in foals, but the prognostic value and interobserver reproducibility of specific CT lesion descriptors remain unclear. This multicenter retrospective study aimed to characterize CT features of hematogenous osteomyelitis in foals using a structured radiologic feature set, assess interobserver agreement, and evaluate associations between CT descriptors and survival to hospital discharge and long-term survival. We hypothesized that CT features considered aggressive, including a long transition zone, permeative or moth-eaten o...
Circulating Cell-Free RNA Reflects Immune-Associated and Airway Remodeling Signatures in Equine Asthma. Circulating cell-free RNA (cfRNA) has emerged as a promising minimally invasive biomarker capable of capturing transcripts originating from multiple tissues and cell types, but its utility in chronic inflammatory airway diseases remains poorly understood. Equine asthma (EA), a naturally occurring respiratory disease that shares key clinical and immunopathological features with human asthma, provides a valuable comparative model for evaluating plasma cfRNA in this context. We performed transcriptomic profiling of plasma cfRNA from horses with EA and healthy controls and compared these findings ...
Magnesium Dysregulation. Magnesium (Mg) is a critical intracellular cation involved in energy metabolism, neuromuscular and cardiac stability, and endocrine regulation of calcium and potassium. In horses, Mg dysregulation is common in gastrointestinal disease, systemic inflammation and critical illness, yet often remains underdiagnosed. Hypomagnesemia contributes to ileus, cardiac arrhythmias, and refractory hypocalcemia or hypokalemia, whereas hypermagnesemia is rarely reported and typically iatrogenic. This review summarizes Mg physiology, regulation, clinical manifestations of Mg dysregulation, diagnostic approache...
Non-coding RNA profiles associated with equine osteoarthritis: a systematic review. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a role in the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis (OA) by regulating gene expression related to inflammation, chondrocyte apoptosis, and extracellular matrix degradation. In horses, OA is a leading cause of lameness and poor performance, with no current treatments halting disease progression and no clear biomarker available. Although some studies have investigated expression profiles of ncRNAs in equine OA, there is a need to systematically review previous efforts and synthesize information to identify potential ncRNAs to target in future research. Unassigned: The sear...
Evidence-based interpretation of uterine cultures in mares: Linking bacterial growth patterns to endometrial inflammation. We evaluated uterine bacterial growth patterns and their association with endometrial inflammation (EI) in equine samples collected using uterine swabs (US) or low-volume uterine lavage (UL). A database including 1,545 US and 2,066 UL with cytological and bacteriological results was retrospectively analysed. Endometrial inflammation was defined as ≥2 polymorphonuclear cells per high-power field, and bacterial culture was considered positive when aerobic growth occurred within 48 h, with the number of bacterial isolates per sample recorded (0, 1, 2, or ≥3). Data were analysed using generali...
Surgical Management of Unilateral Maxillary Molar Teeth Impaction in a Horse. Impaction of equine permanent cheek teeth is most commonly reported in the mandible, whereas maxillary involvement is rare. This report describes an uncommon presentation of congenital impaction of 3 successive maxillary molar teeth in a 4-year-old mare. Computed tomography revealed complex spatial relationships between the impacted teeth, the sinus floor and adjacent structures, which were not fully appreciated on conventional radiography and were essential for surgical planning. Surgical extraction via a maxillary sinus bone flap permitted controlled sectioning and subsequent removal of all ...
Mesenchymal stem cells in veterinary clinical practice: Evidence from naturally occurring diseases. Over the past two decades, the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in veterinary medicine has expanded rapidly, although the clinical evidence remains in its early stages. This review discusses clinical studies involving client-owned animals with naturally occurring diseases in which MSCs or MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were used as treatments. It covers musculoskeletal disorders, including osteoarthritis, tendon and ligament injuries, and bone diseases; soft-tissue and oral mucosal conditions; neurological disorders; ophthalmic diseases; and internal medicine disorders, such as i...
Alpha-2-Macroglobulin-Enriched Plasma Modulates Inflammatory and Proteolytic Pathways in Experimental Equine Musculoskeletal Models. Joint inflammation and extracellular matrix degradation are major contributors to the development of equine osteoarthritis and reduced athletic performance. Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a naturally occurring broad-spectrum inhibitor of proteases and inflammatory mediators that has emerged as a promising orthobiologic therapy. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory and matrix-protective effects of alpha-2-macroglobulin-enriched plasma in complementary in vitro and ex vivo equine models. Primary equine chondrocytes and synoviocytes isolated from healthy horses were stimulated with interleukin...
From Diet to Disease: The Role of the Gut Microbiome and Microbial Metabolites in Horses. The equine gastrointestinal microbiome plays an essential role in digestion, energy metabolism, immune regulation, and maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. Increasing evidence suggests that microbial-derived metabolites provide a functional link between diet, the microbiome, and host physiology. This narrative review summarizes current knowledge on how dietary factors, including structural carbohydrates, non-structural carbohydrates, protein, and lipids, influence microbial function and metabolite production in horses. Relevant publications available up to June 2026 were identified through s...
Equine Fungal Keratitis due to Cladorrhinum bulbillosum. To describe the case details and treatment of an equine fungal keratitis case caused by Cladorrhinum bulbillosum. Methods: A 14-year-old Bashkir Curly gelding with a complicated corneal ulcer of the left eye. Methods: Corneal cytology was performed, and intraoperative samples were collected for polymerase chain reaction and for aerobic and mycologic cultures. Under general anesthesia, an inferior eyelid subpalpebral lavage system (SPL) was placed to facilitate postoperative therapy. Anterior stromal keratectomy was performed followed by cryotherapy of the keratectomy bed. A biological scaffold...
Epidural 0.125% ropivacaine is safe but insufficient for induced tibiotarsal joint pain. Epidural injection of a low concentration of the local anaesthetic ropivacaine produces analgesia without neurological deficits or ileus in people. Objective: To determine if epidural 0.125% ropivacaine mitigates induced hindlimb lameness in horses while preserving neurological function and gastrointestinal (GI) motility. Methods: Randomised, blinded, controlled, crossover study. Methods: Eight healthy, sound horses underwent two treatments in random order, separated by at least 3 weeks: epidural saline or epidural ropivacaine. For each treatment, an epidural catheter was inserted at the fir...
Evaluation of a commercial multiplex immunoassay for assessing uterine inflammation in mares susceptible to persistent breeding-induced endometritis. Persistent breeding-induced endometritis (PBIE) is characterized by a prolonged and dysregulated uterine inflammatory response following breeding. Although inflammatory cytokines are central to the post-breeding immune response, their assessment in the equine uterus has historically relied largely on gene expression analyses. Multiplex immunoassays provide an opportunity to simultaneously quantify multiple cytokine proteins within uterine secretions; however, the application of equine-specific multiplex immunoassays utilizing the Luminex platform to low-volume uterine lavage (LVL) fluid remain...
Quantifying the Equine Pain Response to Paracetamol Administration in Horses With Chronic Lameness Already Receiving Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatories. Paracetamol is used in horses alongside non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) for multi-modal analgesia; however to date there are few studies published which have investigated its analgesic effect in the horse. Horses were recruited to this study from a population of geriatric horses at The Horse Trust. Horses were selected based on the following inclusion criteria; documented naturally occurring chronic lameness and being treated with an NSAID at the licensed dose and dosing interval. This population was assessed with a five-point subjective lameness grading system performed live by two...
Wound healing of experimental cutaneous wounds in horses: comparison between a topical formulation containing powdered coconut water and an antimicrobial ointment. Skin wounds in horses often present prolonged healing, stimulating the search for alternative topical therapies. To date, there are no experimental studies in horses evaluating topical formulations containing powdered coconut water. Objective: To compare the early macroscopic and morphometric wound-healing outcomes and the histopathological findings at day 14 in experimental cutaneous wounds in horses treated with a topical formulation containing powdered coconut water versus a reference antimicrobial ointment. Methods: Eight clinically healthy horses received two standardized circular skin wo...
Effects of omeprazole therapy administered via different routes on urinary parameters and selected interleukins in horses with equine gastric ulcer syndrome. Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is commonly treated with proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole, administered orally or by injection. In humans, omeprazole has been associated with acute interstitial nephritis (AIN) and acute kidney injury (AKI), potentially linked to oxidative stress, and urinary interleukins may serve as early non-invasive markers. However, this association has not been established in horses. Objective: To evaluate the effects of oral and injectable omeprazole on basic urinary parameters and selected interleukin levels, with particular emphasis on the potential risk ...
Differential Serum Cytokine Profiles in Aborting and Subclinically Infected Pregnant Mares with Equine Herpesvirus Type 1. Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a major cause of reproductive loss in mares. This cross-sectional field study evaluated serum concentrations of interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-10 (IL-10), interferon-alpha (IFN-α), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), together with the IL-10/IL-2 and IFN-γ/IL-10 ratios, in 26 vaccinated pregnant Thoroughbred mares. The analytical cohort comprised healthy, EHV-1 PCR-negative mares (HM, n = 10), EHV-1 PCR-positive mares sampled within 4 h after fetal expulsion at approximately the sixth month of gestation (AM, n = 9), and EHV-1 PCR-positive pregnant mares with...
Cord blood mesenchymal stromal cells combined with hyaluronic acid show symptom-modifying and potential disease-modifying effects in an equine osteoarthritis fetlock chip model. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a major cause of lameness in horses, and current therapies largely address clinical signs rather than disease progression. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have shown promise as disease-modifying biologics, but their effects on joint structure and immunologic phenotype remain incompletely characterized. Unassigned: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of pooled cryopreserved equine umbilical cord blood-derived MSCs (eCB-MSCs) combined with hyaluronic acid (HA) for surgically induced fetlock OA in horses, using integrated clinical, imaging, and synovial biomarker outcomes....
Complications Following Nictitating Membrane Resection in Horses: 92 Eyes (2015-2024). The goal of this retrospective study is to evaluate the complications following nictitating membrane resection in horses with the aim of providing valuable information on the risks of this surgical procedure. Methods: 83 horses (92 eyes). Methods: Medical records for 83 horses that underwent nictitating membrane resection in 92 eyes between February 2015 and June 2024 were reviewed. Horses were included if they had at least 1 month of follow-up data available. Owners were contacted via telephone or email questionnaire to obtain follow-up information. Complications were recorded only when pre...
Evaluation of sequential serum amyloid A measurements for the prediction of sepsis and survival in critically ill neonatal foals. Single measurements of serum amyloid A (SAA) concentration at hospital admission has limited sensitivity for predicting sepsis and death. Objective: To determine whether differences in SAA during the first 2 days of hospitalization could predict sepsis and death in critically ill foals. Methods: One hundred twenty-seven critically ill neonatal foals, <14 days of age. Methods: Prospective cohort study. SAA was measured at hospital admission and on day 2 of hospitalization using a validated point-of-care test. Logistic regression was conducted to evaluate the predictive value of individual S...
Risk Factors for Disease in Military Working Equines. Diseases can impact Military Working Equids (MWEs) readiness and limit days in service. The objectives of this study are to categorize diseases in MWEs and evaluate potential risk factors for disease. Methods: Pathology reports from MWEs from 2005 to 2025 were retrieved from the Joint Pathology Center archives. Disease processes with ≥5 cases were evaluated for potential risk factors, including MWE breed, sex, neuter status, geographic location, and age at sampling. Results: Diagnoses included inflammation (n = 30), neoplasia/proliferation (n = 24), within normal limits (n = 12),...
Neosaxitoxin Downregulates Inflammation in an Equine In Vivo Model of Osteoarthritis. Chronic synovial inflammation is a hallmark of osteoarthritis progression and is tightly regulated by synovial macrophages. Recently, voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV) have emerged as potent modulators of macrophage-driven inflammation, positioning them as novel therapeutic targets. Among selective NaV channel blockers, neosaxitoxin exerts remarkable anesthetic and immunomodulatory effects; however, its effects on joint inflammation upon intra-articular delivery remain unexplored. Using an equine model of bilateral carpal osteoarthritis, this study evaluated the immunomodulatory and tissue-p...
Clinical outcomes of a novel flowable calcium silicate cement in equine endodontic treatment. Orthograde endodontic treatment of equine cheek teeth is performed infrequently with variable success rates of obturation with calcium hydroxide paste (CHP). A novel flowable calcium silicate cement (eCSC) formulated for use as an obturation material in equine teeth has demonstrated acceptable canal filling volumes and evidence of dentinal tubule penetration. However, clinical outcomes of eCSC-obturated equine teeth have not been reported. Objective: To report the clinical outcomes of orthograde endodontic treatment using eCSC. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Horses that underwent...
Short-term effects of pulsed electromagnetic field therapy on subjective flexion-associated lameness responses and circulating cytokines in horses with distal tarsal osteoarthritis. Pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) therapy is commonly used in equine sports medicine for its proposed anti-inflammatory effects; however, limited controlled studies have evaluated its physiologic effects in horses. Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of PEMF therapy on flexion-induced lameness and circulating cytokines in horses with radiographic evidence of distal tarsal osteoarthritis. Methods: Six mares were enrolled in a repeated-measures crossover design in which each horse served as its own control. Horses were evaluated at baseline (sham PEMF) and at ...
Rethinking Equine Cystitis: Evidence from Four Atypical Clinical Presentations. In this case series, four equines were diagnosed with cystitis, resulting in divergent clinical outcomes. Three animals achieved complete clinical resolution without recurrence, whereas one required euthanasia due to progressive clinical deterioration. All diagnoses were established through a dual-modality investigative protocol comprising cystoscopic evaluation and histopathological examination of bladder mucosal biopsies. The cohort exhibited considerable etiological heterogeneity. One case was classified as chronic idiopathic cystitis, while another was attributed to an opportunistic bacter...
MicroRNA signatures of equine asthma phenotypes in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Equine asthma (EA) is a highly prevalent, chronic, inflammatory disease of the lower airways ranging from mild-to-moderate to severe clinical presentations. Diagnosis currently relies on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) cytology, an invasive method associated with interobserver variability, which highlights the need for more reproducible approaches. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs involved in gene regulation. They are stable and readily detectable in body fluids and have shown promising results as biomarkers in human asthma. The aim of this pilot study was to characterize miRNA ...
Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Responses in Horses Naturally Infected with Theileria equi. Equine piroplasmosis, caused by the intraerythrocytic protozoan , is a globally distributed tick-borne disease characterized by persistent infection and variable clinical manifestations. Although oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several hemoprotozoan diseases, information regarding redox imbalance and its relationship with inflammatory responses in horses naturally infected with remains limited. This study aimed to evaluate oxidative stress, antioxidant status, inflammatory cytokines, and clinicopathological alterations in horses naturally infected with . Thirty-fiv...
Intrauterine ozone therapy reduces bacterial load in mares with mixed bacterial endometritis: a longitudinal study. Mixed bacterial endometritis poses a therapeutic challenge in mares due to the coexistence of multiple pathogens with divergent antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. This study evaluated the effects of intrauterine ozone insufflation on uterine bacterial load and endometrial inflammatory response in mares with naturally acquired mixed bacterial endometritis. Fifteen mares with mixed bacterial infection were allocated to two treatment groups: a pathological control group receiving pure medical oxygen insufflation (PC; n = 6) and an ozone-treated group receiving 42 µg/mL ozone for three c...
Technical note on cervical epidural catheterization in two adult horses: Injectate distribution and epidural space effects. To determine the caudalmost extent of diffusion of contrast media administered through a cervical epidural catheter (CEC) and to describe pathologic changes associated with maintaining an indwelling CEC for up to 17 days. Methods: Pilot study. Methods: Two mature horses. Methods: CECs were placed under ultrasound guidance in two horses. Both horses were injected with 5 mL 50% Iohexol contrast solution, followed by radiographs of catheter insertion site to confirm placement. A total volume of 15 mL contrast solution was injected in 5 mL aliquots up to 25 min post-initial injection. La...
Evaluation of Microvascular Flow Imaging and Power Doppler Ultrasonography in an Equine Model of Induced Superficial Digital Flexor Tendonitis. Superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injuries are common in athletic horses and are associated with prolonged healing and high reinjury rates. Conventional ultrasonography provides structural information but limited physiologic assessment. This study compared microvascular imaging (MVI) and Power Doppler (PD) for evaluating vascular changes in a collagenase-induced equine SDFT injury model and assessed the effect of scanning technique on vascular signal detection. Eight adult Thoroughbred horses underwent bilateral collagenase-induced SDFT injury, with one forelimb randomly assigned to int...
