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Topic:Inflammation
Inflammation is a biological response of the horse's body to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. It is a complex process that involves the activation of immune cells, the release of inflammatory mediators, and changes in blood flow. In horses, inflammation can manifest in various forms, affecting different tissues and organs, including the joints, respiratory system, and skin. The inflammatory response is an essential component of the horse's immune system, aiming to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, clear out damaged cells and tissues, and establish tissue repair. This topic page gathers peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanisms, effects, and management of inflammation in equine health.
Diagnosed causes of sinonasal disease in 1600 horses and associations with clinical signs, computed tomographic findings and case outcome. The diagnosis of equine sinonasal disorders has been greatly enhanced by using computed tomographic (CT) imaging. Objective: To explore associations between specific diagnoses and clinical and CT findings and between specific diagnoses and case outcome in equine sinonasal disease. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Data were collected from medical records from 19 equine hospitals on cases of sinonasal disease, all of which underwent CT imaging. Case outcome was obtained from clinical records, and/or by contacting clients and referring veterinarians. Logistic regression analysis was u...
Pulmonary cryptococcosis with an endobronchial cryptococcoma in a Warmblood mare. This report describes pulmonary cryptococcosis with a large endobronchial cryptococcoma in an 8-year-old Warmblood mare. The mare was presented initially with fever and lethargy, and clinical signs typical of bacterial pneumonia. Markedly elevated serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations indicated a severe systemic inflammatory response. Over a period of 6 wk, the condition progressively worsened and was refractory to multiple courses of broad-spectrum antimicrobial therapy as administered in a field setting. Diagnostic imaging following referral revealed extensive consolidation of the left lung a...
Successful outcome of open distal interphalangeal joint luxation in equids treated by surgical debridement without internal implants. The distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ) plays a crucial role in the function of the hoof and digit. Dislocations and subluxations in this region are rare and primarily of traumatic origin. Methods: This case report aims to describe two unusual cases of open DIPJ dislocation, including clinical presentation, diagnostic workup, treatment, and long-term follow-up. Both animals presented with open traumatic distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ) luxation. In Case 1, the animal received initial care on the property 5 h post-trauma and presented with joint exposure and articular surface contact with th...
Airway Lipid Mediators in Horses: Baseline Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid Profiles and Effects of EPA and DHA-rich Microalgae Oil Supplementation. We investigated how dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) affect airway inflammation, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) lipid mediators and red blood cell fatty acids in horses. Increased BALF neutrophils are a hallmark of airway inflammation, commonly associated with equine asthma. The long-chain n-3 PUFAs EPA and DHA are essential nutrients and precursors of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) that regulate inflammatory responses. In this prospective field trial, we assigned horses to three diets, including...
Association between cytology and endoscopy of guttural pouches: a prospective study on 173 horses. Guttural pouch (GP) disorders are clinically important in horses, yet the relationship between endoscopic findings and GP cytology remains poorly defined. Objective: To establish reference cytological values for GP lavage fluid in horses and to investigate associations between inflammatory cytology and endoscopic findings. Methods: Asymptomatic racing horses sampled in the field and horses referred for investigation of respiratory disorders. Methods: Prospective cross-sectional study. Horses underwent clinical examination, upper airway endoscopy, and bilateral transendoscopic GP lavage. A GP i...
Evaluating ex vivo toll-like receptor agonist response as a potential biomarker in equine gastric ulcer syndrome. Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is highly prevalent in horses. Despite its presumed painful nature, evaluation of objective biomarkers associated with EGUS presence and severity remains limited. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) release by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) following ex vivo stimulation of toll-like receptors 2 and 4 (TLR2 and TLR4) as a potential biomarker for EGUS status, with gastric lesions used as a proxy for presumed EGUS-associated pain. Venous blood was collected from 77 horses, PBMCs were isolated ...
Computed Tomographic Lesion Descriptors in Foals With Hematogenous Osteomyelitis: Interobserver Agreement and Association With Outcome. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly used to diagnose osteomyelitis in foals, but the prognostic value and interobserver reproducibility of specific CT lesion descriptors remain unclear. This multicenter retrospective study aimed to characterize CT features of hematogenous osteomyelitis in foals using a structured radiologic feature set, assess interobserver agreement, and evaluate associations between CT descriptors and survival to hospital discharge and long-term survival. We hypothesized that CT features considered aggressive, including a long transition zone, permeative or moth-eaten o...
Circulating Cell-Free RNA Reflects Immune-Associated and Airway Remodeling Signatures in Equine Asthma. Circulating cell-free RNA (cfRNA) has emerged as a promising minimally invasive biomarker capable of capturing transcripts originating from multiple tissues and cell types, but its utility in chronic inflammatory airway diseases remains poorly understood. Equine asthma (EA), a naturally occurring respiratory disease that shares key clinical and immunopathological features with human asthma, provides a valuable comparative model for evaluating plasma cfRNA in this context. We performed transcriptomic profiling of plasma cfRNA from horses with EA and healthy controls and compared these findings ...
Magnesium Dysregulation. Magnesium (Mg) is a critical intracellular cation involved in energy metabolism, neuromuscular and cardiac stability, and endocrine regulation of calcium and potassium. In horses, Mg dysregulation is common in gastrointestinal disease, systemic inflammation and critical illness, yet often remains underdiagnosed. Hypomagnesemia contributes to ileus, cardiac arrhythmias, and refractory hypocalcemia or hypokalemia, whereas hypermagnesemia is rarely reported and typically iatrogenic. This review summarizes Mg physiology, regulation, clinical manifestations of Mg dysregulation, diagnostic approache...
Evidence-based interpretation of uterine cultures in mares: Linking bacterial growth patterns to endometrial inflammation. We evaluated uterine bacterial growth patterns and their association with endometrial inflammation (EI) in equine samples collected using uterine swabs (US) or low-volume uterine lavage (UL). A database including 1,545 US and 2,066 UL with cytological and bacteriological results was retrospectively analysed. Endometrial inflammation was defined as ≥2 polymorphonuclear cells per high-power field, and bacterial culture was considered positive when aerobic growth occurred within 48 h, with the number of bacterial isolates per sample recorded (0, 1, 2, or ≥3). Data were analysed using generali...
Surgical Management of Unilateral Maxillary Molar Teeth Impaction in a Horse. Impaction of equine permanent cheek teeth is most commonly reported in the mandible, whereas maxillary involvement is rare. This report describes an uncommon presentation of congenital impaction of 3 successive maxillary molar teeth in a 4-year-old mare. Computed tomography revealed complex spatial relationships between the impacted teeth, the sinus floor and adjacent structures, which were not fully appreciated on conventional radiography and were essential for surgical planning. Surgical extraction via a maxillary sinus bone flap permitted controlled sectioning and subsequent removal of all ...
Mesenchymal stem cells in veterinary clinical practice: Evidence from naturally occurring diseases. Over the past two decades, the use of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in veterinary medicine has expanded rapidly, although the clinical evidence remains in its early stages. This review discusses clinical studies involving client-owned animals with naturally occurring diseases in which MSCs or MSC-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were used as treatments. It covers musculoskeletal disorders, including osteoarthritis, tendon and ligament injuries, and bone diseases; soft-tissue and oral mucosal conditions; neurological disorders; ophthalmic diseases; and internal medicine disorders, such as i...
Alpha-2-Macroglobulin-Enriched Plasma Modulates Inflammatory and Proteolytic Pathways in Experimental Equine Musculoskeletal Models. Joint inflammation and extracellular matrix degradation are major contributors to the development of equine osteoarthritis and reduced athletic performance. Alpha-2-macroglobulin is a naturally occurring broad-spectrum inhibitor of proteases and inflammatory mediators that has emerged as a promising orthobiologic therapy. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory and matrix-protective effects of alpha-2-macroglobulin-enriched plasma in complementary in vitro and ex vivo equine models. Primary equine chondrocytes and synoviocytes isolated from healthy horses were stimulated with interleukin...
From Diet to Disease: The Role of the Gut Microbiome and Microbial Metabolites in Horses. The equine gastrointestinal microbiome plays an essential role in digestion, energy metabolism, immune regulation, and maintenance of intestinal homeostasis. Increasing evidence suggests that microbial-derived metabolites provide a functional link between diet, the microbiome, and host physiology. This narrative review summarizes current knowledge on how dietary factors, including structural carbohydrates, non-structural carbohydrates, protein, and lipids, influence microbial function and metabolite production in horses. Relevant publications available up to June 2026 were identified through s...
Equine Fungal Keratitis due to Cladorrhinum bulbillosum. To describe the case details and treatment of an equine fungal keratitis case caused by Cladorrhinum bulbillosum. Methods: A 14-year-old Bashkir Curly gelding with a complicated corneal ulcer of the left eye. Methods: Corneal cytology was performed, and intraoperative samples were collected for polymerase chain reaction and for aerobic and mycologic cultures. Under general anesthesia, an inferior eyelid subpalpebral lavage system (SPL) was placed to facilitate postoperative therapy. Anterior stromal keratectomy was performed followed by cryotherapy of the keratectomy bed. A biological scaffold...
Epidural 0.125% ropivacaine is safe but insufficient for induced tibiotarsal joint pain. Epidural injection of a low concentration of the local anaesthetic ropivacaine produces analgesia without neurological deficits or ileus in people. Objective: To determine if epidural 0.125% ropivacaine mitigates induced hindlimb lameness in horses while preserving neurological function and gastrointestinal (GI) motility. Methods: Randomised, blinded, controlled, crossover study. Methods: Eight healthy, sound horses underwent two treatments in random order, separated by at least 3 weeks: epidural saline or epidural ropivacaine. For each treatment, an epidural catheter was inserted at the fir...
Evaluation of a commercial multiplex immunoassay for assessing uterine inflammation in mares susceptible to persistent breeding-induced endometritis. Persistent breeding-induced endometritis (PBIE) is characterized by a prolonged and dysregulated uterine inflammatory response following breeding. Although inflammatory cytokines are central to the post-breeding immune response, their assessment in the equine uterus has historically relied largely on gene expression analyses. Multiplex immunoassays provide an opportunity to simultaneously quantify multiple cytokine proteins within uterine secretions; however, the application of equine-specific multiplex immunoassays utilizing the Luminex platform to low-volume uterine lavage (LVL) fluid remain...
Quantifying the Equine Pain Response to Paracetamol Administration in Horses With Chronic Lameness Already Receiving Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatories. Paracetamol is used in horses alongside non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) for multi-modal analgesia; however to date there are few studies published which have investigated its analgesic effect in the horse. Horses were recruited to this study from a population of geriatric horses at The Horse Trust. Horses were selected based on the following inclusion criteria; documented naturally occurring chronic lameness and being treated with an NSAID at the licensed dose and dosing interval. This population was assessed with a five-point subjective lameness grading system performed live by two...
Wound healing of experimental cutaneous wounds in horses: comparison between a topical formulation containing powdered coconut water and an antimicrobial ointment. Skin wounds in horses often present prolonged healing, stimulating the search for alternative topical therapies. To date, there are no experimental studies in horses evaluating topical formulations containing powdered coconut water. Objective: To compare the early macroscopic and morphometric wound-healing outcomes and the histopathological findings at day 14 in experimental cutaneous wounds in horses treated with a topical formulation containing powdered coconut water versus a reference antimicrobial ointment. Methods: Eight clinically healthy horses received two standardized circular skin wo...
Effects of omeprazole therapy administered via different routes on urinary parameters and selected interleukins in horses with equine gastric ulcer syndrome. Equine gastric ulcer syndrome (EGUS) is commonly treated with proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole, administered orally or by injection. In humans, omeprazole has been associated with acute interstitial nephritis (AIN) and acute kidney injury (AKI), potentially linked to oxidative stress, and urinary interleukins may serve as early non-invasive markers. However, this association has not been established in horses. Objective: To evaluate the effects of oral and injectable omeprazole on basic urinary parameters and selected interleukin levels, with particular emphasis on the potential risk ...
Differential Serum Cytokine Profiles in Aborting and Subclinically Infected Pregnant Mares with Equine Herpesvirus Type 1. Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is a major cause of reproductive loss in mares. This cross-sectional field study evaluated serum concentrations of interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-10 (IL-10), interferon-alpha (IFN-α), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), together with the IL-10/IL-2 and IFN-γ/IL-10 ratios, in 26 vaccinated pregnant Thoroughbred mares. The analytical cohort comprised healthy, EHV-1 PCR-negative mares (HM, n = 10), EHV-1 PCR-positive mares sampled within 4 h after fetal expulsion at approximately the sixth month of gestation (AM, n = 9), and EHV-1 PCR-positive pregnant mares with...
Cord blood mesenchymal stromal cells combined with hyaluronic acid show symptom-modifying and potential disease-modifying effects in an equine osteoarthritis fetlock chip model. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a major cause of lameness in horses, and current therapies largely address clinical signs rather than disease progression. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have shown promise as disease-modifying biologics, but their effects on joint structure and immunologic phenotype remain incompletely characterized. Unassigned: To evaluate the safety and efficacy of pooled cryopreserved equine umbilical cord blood-derived MSCs (eCB-MSCs) combined with hyaluronic acid (HA) for surgically induced fetlock OA in horses, using integrated clinical, imaging, and synovial biomarker outcomes....
Complications Following Nictitating Membrane Resection in Horses: 92 Eyes (2015-2024). The goal of this retrospective study is to evaluate the complications following nictitating membrane resection in horses with the aim of providing valuable information on the risks of this surgical procedure. Methods: 83 horses (92 eyes). Methods: Medical records for 83 horses that underwent nictitating membrane resection in 92 eyes between February 2015 and June 2024 were reviewed. Horses were included if they had at least 1 month of follow-up data available. Owners were contacted via telephone or email questionnaire to obtain follow-up information. Complications were recorded only when pre...
Evaluation of sequential serum amyloid A measurements for the prediction of sepsis and survival in critically ill neonatal foals. Single measurements of serum amyloid A (SAA) concentration at hospital admission has limited sensitivity for predicting sepsis and death. Objective: To determine whether differences in SAA during the first 2 days of hospitalization could predict sepsis and death in critically ill foals. Methods: One hundred twenty-seven critically ill neonatal foals, <14 days of age. Methods: Prospective cohort study. SAA was measured at hospital admission and on day 2 of hospitalization using a validated point-of-care test. Logistic regression was conducted to evaluate the predictive value of individual S...
Risk Factors for Disease in Military Working Equines. Diseases can impact Military Working Equids (MWEs) readiness and limit days in service. The objectives of this study are to categorize diseases in MWEs and evaluate potential risk factors for disease. Methods: Pathology reports from MWEs from 2005 to 2025 were retrieved from the Joint Pathology Center archives. Disease processes with ≥5 cases were evaluated for potential risk factors, including MWE breed, sex, neuter status, geographic location, and age at sampling. Results: Diagnoses included inflammation (n = 30), neoplasia/proliferation (n = 24), within normal limits (n = 12),...
Neosaxitoxin Downregulates Inflammation in an Equine In Vivo Model of Osteoarthritis. Chronic synovial inflammation is a hallmark of osteoarthritis progression and is tightly regulated by synovial macrophages. Recently, voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV) have emerged as potent modulators of macrophage-driven inflammation, positioning them as novel therapeutic targets. Among selective NaV channel blockers, neosaxitoxin exerts remarkable anesthetic and immunomodulatory effects; however, its effects on joint inflammation upon intra-articular delivery remain unexplored. Using an equine model of bilateral carpal osteoarthritis, this study evaluated the immunomodulatory and tissue-p...
Clinical outcomes of a novel flowable calcium silicate cement in equine endodontic treatment. Orthograde endodontic treatment of equine cheek teeth is performed infrequently with variable success rates of obturation with calcium hydroxide paste (CHP). A novel flowable calcium silicate cement (eCSC) formulated for use as an obturation material in equine teeth has demonstrated acceptable canal filling volumes and evidence of dentinal tubule penetration. However, clinical outcomes of eCSC-obturated equine teeth have not been reported. Objective: To report the clinical outcomes of orthograde endodontic treatment using eCSC. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Horses that underwent...
Short-term effects of pulsed electromagnetic field therapy on subjective flexion-associated lameness responses and circulating cytokines in horses with distal tarsal osteoarthritis. Pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) therapy is commonly used in equine sports medicine for its proposed anti-inflammatory effects; however, limited controlled studies have evaluated its physiologic effects in horses. Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of PEMF therapy on flexion-induced lameness and circulating cytokines in horses with radiographic evidence of distal tarsal osteoarthritis. Methods: Six mares were enrolled in a repeated-measures crossover design in which each horse served as its own control. Horses were evaluated at baseline (sham PEMF) and at ...
Rethinking Equine Cystitis: Evidence from Four Atypical Clinical Presentations. In this case series, four equines were diagnosed with cystitis, resulting in divergent clinical outcomes. Three animals achieved complete clinical resolution without recurrence, whereas one required euthanasia due to progressive clinical deterioration. All diagnoses were established through a dual-modality investigative protocol comprising cystoscopic evaluation and histopathological examination of bladder mucosal biopsies. The cohort exhibited considerable etiological heterogeneity. One case was classified as chronic idiopathic cystitis, while another was attributed to an opportunistic bacter...
